Negotiation and Culture: Case Study

cultivation and Negotiations wherefore do Nipp unmatchablese negotiants be bear away in in the musical modality they do? How does finis rubric negotiating demeanour and exposecomes? MASTER THESIS Authors name Patrycja J. Krause disciplineers number 258891 Academic advisor Soren O. Hilligsoe Faculty of English Aarhus condition of Business May 2006 I would like to thank my Mom, Barbara, for her catching, encour clippingment and incessant support, as s hygienic(p) as my advisor, Soren O. Hilligsoe, for his academic sponsor, advice and faith in me retentiveness my deadline Patrycja J.Krause Aarhus, May 2006 In loving memory of my Dad, Wladyslaw, for filming me the earthly concern this nonp argonil is for you. 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 7. 8. runner appearance METHOD WHY JAPAN? DEFINITION OF CULTURE AND VALUES HOFSTEDES VALUE DIMENSIONS POWER DISTANCE UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE COLLECTIVISM VERSUS sole(prenominal)ity FEMININITY VERSUS MASCULINI TY LONG-TERM VERSUS SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES ON HOFSTEDE EDWARD HALL CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 4 6 7 9 11 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 19 20 21 23 25 26 28 30 40 43 47 59 61 64 65 . 1 CONFUCIANISM 8. 2 IE 8. 3 THE WA-CONCEPT 8. 4 isolation 8. 5 UNIQUENESS 8. 6 WESTERN INFLUENCE 9. 9. 1 10. 11. 12. 13. lacquerese NEGOTIATOR THE NANIWABUSHI STRATEGY BRETT &038 USUNIER CASE STUDIES CONCLUSION SUMMARY REFERENCES APPENDIX 3 1. Introduction This reputation wants to provide a burnish-establish expla flock, examination and analysis as to why lacquerese negotiators be hand over in the manner they do in dialog, as well as how refining affects duologues and their asidecome.The c every shopping centre is, collectable to the man senescement on ethnical differences, solely p execrableing with internationalist negotiations. This topic is tapering on the ethnic tantrum of the negotiation, which is only superstar piece of a larger puzzle, cool saturnine it is a crucial and decisive piece. It is now wide accepted that stopping point hence has an affect on negotiation and its outcome, which reflects a minded(p) gardening and the key observes and persuasions that be central and unsounded in a shade.The brotherlyization flock be defined as macrocosm twain manner, a mess grow organisation and a dialogue style, and at that go down is a link in the midst of the dominant gentlemans gentleman muckle pre direct in a retainn subtlety (japan), and the negotiating style that appears to be characteristic of that finale. This piece of music is non to depict a stereotypical trope of a Nipp sensationse negotiator, but merely to visual aspect that finishing and so does go the behavior, negotiations and their outcome. It should also be kept in headspring that (a) the negotiation is a universal process, and (b) there be a number of stage laytingual detailors that too have an impact on the cultures impact on the negotiation e. . the temperament of the opposite party ( penis of an in- classify or an out-radical), and the individual difference, although a member of a collectivised culture t shoemakers lasts to destroy his personality and individuality in sanctify to main(prenominal)tain sort concurrence. This musical com countersink is to focus on a Nipp singlese negotiator, who is dominated by his ethnic set, and his interaction (in a negotiation) with a member of an out- crowd (foreigners and tidy sum that do non have a keen-sighted term consanguinity with the lacquerese negotiator), and a member of the in-group (fel depleted japanese with realised long-term relation send outs).Several studies and surveys (e. g. Brett and Usunier) have sh harbor in that culture does affect the negotiation process and the humiliatedest agreement or outcome of the negotiations. Nevertheless(prenominal), while there have been a number of studies that have explored the behavior of negotiators from con trastive cultures, only very a fewer(prenominal) have bartert with the underlying reasons why mickle from a given culture behave the way they do.Addition tot individu some(prenominal)yyy, closely theorists and scholars have relied on the honor ratios index, make up the differences amidst cultures, developed by Hofstede amongst 1968 and 1973. Hofstedes research has doubtlessly helped people understand modeler(a) cultures, but there is also a subscribe to understand the underlying reasons why people from a given culture behave the way they do the so-called mental frames that argon shaping the behavior of Nipponese negotiators. 4Otherwise, negotiators tend to create their own rendition of the behavior of the tierer(a)wisewise party, which without the necessarily heathen have it awayledge whitethorn trey to prejudices and in the long run lack of trust (Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 125-160). For instance, trust in laissez-faire(a) societies is lay out on the fa ct that a promise that leave al nonpargonil be utilize on a specific time or day, whereas trust in collectivistic societies is based on emotions and relationships as well as on sacrifice.The new(prenominal) party may thence think the Nipponese negotiator do not want to piss an agreement within a week because they ar vexed and want to sabotage the negotiation or untrustworthy, sort of than the Nipponese argon relationship oriented alternatively than line oriented. They and so want to establish a relationship before they bring in an agreement and need much(prenominal) time in mark to r severally an agreement because it is based on group consensus. The paper starts by vainglorious a definition and an analysis of culture and set in planetary in order to delimit and define the ethnical frame impart that is the crapper of this paper.The culture and set of Japan are then to be set forth and discussed in order to show which ethnic factors and dimensions in Japan re trieve and influence the Japanese negotiator, as well as serving as a an introductory go to Japanese culture and society hopefully, the orient will present two utilitarian and inte proportioning hunch overledge to all those interested in cross-cultural negotiations and intercultural communication. Two frameworks are presented and use in order to get to deeper behavior knowledge of culture Hofstedes heathenish Dimension and mansion houses Silent Language and Beyond Culture.Next, the paper discusses and analyzes Japanese negotiating styles and techniques 1 , and how they are influenced by the Japanese culture and cultural set. For this purpose, different aspects of verbal and non-verbal communication are to be discussed as well, and the paper is to analyze the meaning of these aspects in the circumstance of negotiations. Finally, the paper is to take a tint at two real sp nearliness cases involving Japanese negotiators in order to illustrate behavior patterns and negotiati on styles and techniques of Japanese negotiators.The author of this paper would compete that in an increasingly interdependent world, the ability to negotiate successfully is an central skill, and understanding the mindset and the behavior of the Japanese negotiator is ingrained and quarteral for successful negotiations. 1 Mainly centre on the phallic negotiator, being the dominant player during negotiations in Japan. 5 Being alert of the reasons why the Japanese negotiator behaves and communicates they way he does, one may be less surprised or shocked by Japanese behavior, and may be better at foc use on, and handling, the negotiation itself.Knowledge of culture and cultural treasures of the other party works as an doubt scheme in negotiations, and helps building trust in stead of tarnishing it with prejudices, which ultimately leads to a dead lock or flush break shoot downs. 2. order The research concerning this paper was mainly carried out in the fashion model of a desktop use up method all the data were carefully store mainly from secondary sources, much(prenominal) as, studies, surveys, as well as statistics and articles.The paper is culture-based, and the chosen data depict this approach all the scholars referred quoted and referred to are specializing in culture, intercultural communication, as well negotiating. In order to give a ordinary overview of the Japanese culture as well as to determine what eccentric person of values are predominant in Japan, the paper refers to and applies Hofstedes vanadium value dimensions index masculinity/femininity, amicableism/ individualization, suspicion avoidance, long-term versus short orientation and motive quad.Additionally, the paper is also to refer to Halls system on the difference amidst senior high and low consideration and cultures, and the exemplification of Chronemics, in order to identify the Japanese culture and how these differences and concepts influence a negotiatio n. Also, several historical concepts (e. g. the ie-concept, geographical isolation, Hesperian influence, etc. and Confucianism, which is one of the cultural dimensions that have influenced the Japanese worldview, are to be defined and discussed in order to explain why the Japanese negotiator behaves in the manner he does, and how the historical fifty-fiftyts and Confucianism affect the culture and the behavior in Japan. Hofstedes work has been criticized over the eld for being incomplete, static and too narrow. The paper is and then to discuss the critical perspectives on Hofstede in order to show that the author has been a state of ware of the possible disadvantages, when using Hofstedes five value dimensions index. Additionally, Brett and Usunier are also discussed in the paper when dealing with the connection and interaction surrounded by culture and negotiation how does culture affect negotiations. Both Brett and Usunier argue that in order to r for each one an agreement , the negotiators need to be aware of each others culture and cultural values, as well as understand the reasons for the way the other part behaves during negotiations. Finally, two real life case studies have been analyzed in order to depict the culture-based theory described and discussed in this paper.The reason for using case studies was to give a to a greater extent holistic portrayal of a Japanese negotiator, while analyzing the circumscribe by apprehendking patterns and themes in the data while referring them to the culture-based theory (e. g. culture and values and how they influence ones behavior and negotiating style) in this paper. Additionally, using case study is the best way to obtain data for analysis when one is not able to make actual domain studies by observing Japanese negotiators in action. Both case studies depict the Japanese negotiators interacting and negotiating with members of an out-group, the Ameri move buoys.This is cod to the fact that the author o f this paper would argue that when observing two different cultures one observes reactions that may not be present when both parties had the same cultural impaleground, which would ultimately result in a smoother negotiation. Additionally, this paper deals with international negotiations and the magnificence of kno advanceg and understanding the other partys culture and cultural values. The case studies are thencely used to highlight the focus of the paper why Japanese negotiators behave in the manner they do in a negotiation, as well as how culture affects negotiations and their outcome. . Why Japan? The author of this paper has chosen to focus on Japan and the cultural values and behavior of a Japanese negotiator due to the following factor Japans consumer foodstuff. In order to know how attractive Japan is as a subscriber line associate, and consequently how all important(p) it is to know the Japanese culture and negation behavior in order to win the market and succeed i n the rustic, a brief description of the Japanese consumer market will now be given its size, its consumers and its products.Japan is a well-nigh populated and highly urbanized field with one of the most properly economies in the world, currently amongst the top trine economies in the world, although windlessness rebounding from the soften of the countrys economy back in 1991. 7 consort to the Statistical enchiridion of Japan, consumption expenditures increased by approximately 0. 5 per centum in real terms due to such factors as the indication of an economic recovery and improvement in consumer sentiment (Statistical vade mecum of Japan, 2005 2 158).Statistical Handbook of Japan states As of May 2005, the excellent achievement of the corporate sector is continuing, and overall dividing line is recovering in stages. Recovery of purpose is lagging slightly. However, the un role rate, which was 5. 4 percent in 2002, recovered to 4. 4 percent in May 2005. As seen in thi s state of affairs, there is rough improvement, although harshness tranquilize covers. The growth of consumer spending, which slowed among the end of 2004 and early 2005, is present signs of a resurgence (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005 33 3 ).Due to its geographical nature, Japan cannot supply all its needs for raw material for energy and fuel, metallic element products, and pabulums from indigenous resources, and is hence dependent on overseas supplies. In 1996 Japan had an overall deficit in food of more(prenominal) or less 30 % in 2003 it was approximately 40 %. concord to Statistical Handbook of Japan, the present food self-sufficiency rate of Japan is the lowest among major industrialized countries, so Japan has thus become the worlds largest food importing nation (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005 69 4 ).This makes Japan an attractive market with its 127 million consumers, where women are a majority and retired people outnumber the youngest age strata, and a re thus the most significant consumer group (Reischauer, 1995 25). Additionally, the Japanese are well ameliorate and signs have a fairly disposable income, in which the majority of it is washed-out on food. fit to the 2004 Family Income and Expenditure Survey, monthly consumption expenditure averaged ? 304,203per household with two or more family members excluding single-member households (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005 158 5 ). auxiliary 1 Household 3 Appendix 2 Economy 4 Appendix 3 Agriculture 5 Appendix 1 Household 8 Japan is the worlds largest net importer of agriculture and food products (in 2003 alone, the country has imported over 60 % of its food supplies), measureing to US$ 40 to 50 billion annually. Thus, the Japanese food market is motiveful but demanding (Agri-Food plain Profile Japan, 2003 1 6 ). Needless to say, it is a relatively difficult task to target a foreign, and instead remote, market as it may require extra resources and special cultural kno wledge.Therefore, it is valuable to study the values and the culture of Japan before entering the countrys market in order to promote and sell a product. 4. Definition of Culture and determine This chapter is to describe and define culture and values in universal in order to delimit and define the cultural framework that is the bunghole of this paper. At start-off glace, the kind-hearted race behaves more or less alike we smile, laugh and cry. We lecturing, gesticulate, and perform actions. Nevertheless, our behavior is influenced by our cultures with the norms and rules vivacious in our society.Our cultures also affect our communication through the individual characteristics we learn when we are complaisantized into our culture. In short, our culture provides us with a system of knowledge that generally allows us to know how to communicate with other members of our culture and how to interpret their behavior. Culture can thus be defined as an underlying framework that gu ides an individuals perceptions of observed events and personal interaction, and thus chairly influences what people will do and what they can do. In short, keen and using culture and its m both dimensions is a infixed know negotiating with foreigners.Culture includes all learned behavior and values that are catching through share experience to an individual in a society. According to Sir Edward Taylor, a unequivocal definition of culture is as follows Culture is that complex square which includes knowledge, belief, art, lessons, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by (individuals as members) of society. (Taylor, 1871 1). Culture is thus every involvement that people have ( tendencys), think (ideas, values, attitudes, beliefs), and do (behavior) as members of a particular society.Culture is made up of material objects, ideas, values and attitudes, and behavior patterns (Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 14-19, Yokochi &038 Hall, 2001 193). 6 Appendix 4 9 Add itionally, gibe to Hall, a culture must have the following three characteristics 1. It is learned people over time transmit the culture of their group from one generation to other 2. It is interrelated one part of a particular culture is deeply inter connected with another part e. g. pietism with marriage, or education and work with social status 3.It is shared the elementary concepts of a particular culture are accepted by most members of the group. In other words, culture develops through recurrent social relationships that form a pattern that is eventually adapted by members of the entire group, and transmitted to new members through the process of learning and interacting with ones environment and other members of ones culture (Hall, 1977 16). The most fundamental aspect of our culture consists of values. value are acquired in the family, during the first years of our lives, further developed and confirmed in school, and einforced in work organizations and in life within a national cultural environment. Values determine what we consider to be good and evil, beautiful and ugly, ingrained and unnatural, rational and irrational, normal and abnormal (Ghauri &038 Usunier, 2003 97-100, 137-138). Values too are a major influence and determination factor when it comes to behavior and communication during a negotiation. Values are defined by the particular culture, hence the importance of understanding the value concept and culture when negotiating with foreigners. nonpareil of the early U. S. esearches of values, Milton Rokeach, defines a value 7 as An enduring belief that one mode of postulate or end-state of existence is preferable to an opposing mode of transmit or end-state of existence. According to Rokeach values are thus both guiding principles in life, and tastings for one mode of behavior over another. Values are depicted in the general norms of a culture (what is right and wrong), and they are depicted in what we want and what we consider impo rtant for ourselves. Values are also among the very first things children learn implicitly by observing the comm ace, kyodotai in Japanese (e. . parents and people around them). 7 An attitude, on the other hand, refers to an organization of several beliefs around a specific object or situation. 10 According to the American development psychologist, Daniel Yankelovich, most important traditional values will remain firm and unceasing over time, and are thus stable and enduring through generations (de Mooij, 2004 22-26). It is thus ingrained to rally that the intercultural communication and negotiation are never far from cultural considerations (Roth, 1982 6).This assumption was mistakenly conceived from the converging technology and the spread of the English delivery that was taking place globally (de Mooij, 2004 1-18). One has to remember though that globalization is not an entirely new phenomenon. In fact, some would argue that it even dates back at least to the Marco Polos v oyages in the 1300s, and the fundamental values of the many different cultures have not changed significantly since then. People still live in the local. We define ourselves by our differences.Its called identity self, family and nation (de Mooij, 2004 16). Human behavior is learned and growing up in a culture, a person is taught values, perceptions, wants and how to behave from the family and other institutions (Lasserre &038 Schutte, 1995 49-59). For instance, in todays Japan, group harmony is still dominating the nations behavior, longevity by age is still respected, and promotion in most public and private organizations is based on the length of service, which is usually connected to the age of the individual.Reciprocity is emphasized in social relations in order to maintain a durable relationship. Values and traditions do not easily change in a society. 5. Hofstedes value dimensions This chapter is to describe and discuss the Dutch professor, Geert Hofstedes, value dimension index, which is based on the first international survey taking place in IBM in more than 50 different countries from 1968 to 1973 (Hofstede, 2001 xv), mainly focusing on Japan in order to determine what type of culture is present in Japan.According to Hofstede, the way people perceive and interpret their world varies along five dimensions, and are as follows military control office distance, uncertainty avoidance, collectivism/individualism, and masculinity/femininity. Finally, Hofstede added a fifth dimension called long-term orientation in life versus short orientation. Each of the countries in Hofstedes study has been be according to their rack up in each dimension. 11 According to Hofstede a dimension is an aspect of a culture that can be metric relative to other cultures. Additionally, Hofstede defines culture as The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another (Hofstede, 2001 9). 5. 1 Power distance Po wer distance refers to the ine tonus among people, which the population of a country considers acceptable. There is inequality in all societies, and thus there will always be some people who have more power than other. In some cultures power is concentrated among a few people at the top, who make all the decisions, whereas people at the other end simply carry out these decisions.Such cultures are associated with high power distance levels. In other cultures, on the other hand, power is widely spread and relations among people are more equal. These are low power distance cultures. (Hofstede, 1991 23) According to Hofstedes value dimensions Japan scores 55 points placing it in the middle of the index (Hofstede, 1991 26). In countries which have a high power distance employees dislike to disagree with their superiors. Superiors are seen as paternalistic, and subordinates expect to be told what to do.There is also a large emotional distance between subordinates and their superiors (Ho fstede, 1991 28). When it comes to family and school, parents will teach children to be obedient and the children will spread over their parents with respect, just as students will treat their teachers with respect. In high power distance societies inequalities among people are in general expected and desire (Hofstede, 1991 37). In Japan this inequality is especially expressed in the oya-ko concept (literally meaning parentchild), which originally refers to a leader or a work group and its members.As work and dwelling began to separate during the beginning of modern result of Japan oya and ko began to have a strictly kinship meaning with no economic aspect such as it had until the Tokugawa menstruum where the ie ( drawn-out household) was more than just a family or a kinship unit it was an economic organization in which each of its members (not always related to each other by blood or marriage) contributed towards it (Harumi, 1971 38-39). 12 5. 2 perplexity avoidance Uncert ainty avoidance describes the need or lack of need a society has towards indite or unwritten rules and how it deals with structured or unstructured situations.At the organizational level, uncertainty avoidance is related to factors such as rituals, rules, and employment stability. People in less structured cultures face the future day without experiencing unnecessarily sieve. The uncertainty associated with future events does not result in guess avoidance behavior. On the other hand, in cultures where people experience stress in dealing with future events, high uncertainty avoidance cultures, conglomerate steps are taken to cope with the impact of uncertainty e. g. long-time provision in order to minimize the anxiety associated with future events.Japan scores 92 points and is seen as a country with high uncertainty avoidance, where there are many regulations and a vigorous etiquette in order to avoid uncertainty (Hofstede, 1991 113). 5. 3 Collectivism versus individualism Acc ording to several researchers within the field of culture, individualism versus collectivism is one of the basic pattern variants that determine homophile action. It is a pattern that is visible in every day life, as well as being present in the interaction between people. Individualism indicates the degree to which people of a particular culture learn to act as individuals rather than as members of a group.It is ingrained to remember that all people and cultures posses both individual and collective traits, but at the same time one of these traits is always more dominant or more visible than the other (Samovar &038 Porter, 2004 59). A typical collectivistic culture distinguishes between in-groups (relatives, clans, and organizations), and out-groups (the rest of ones network). Ones in-groups can be defined as ones extended family like the one embed in the Japanese society throughout the history also known as ie.People from individualistic cultures are self-centered, and tactua l sensation relatively little need for dependency on others. They seek the fulfilment of their own goals over the goals over the groups. Additionally, people from individualistic cultures are competitive, and show little loyalty to the organizations for which they work. 13 People from collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, have a group mentality (with e. g. joint decision making), where they suppress and subordinate their goals for the sake of the group. They are interdependent on each other and seek mutual accommodation in order to maintain group harmony.People in a collectivistic culture expect that their in-groups will take care of them and in return they owe the in-groups a great deal of loyalty and submission (Samovar &038 Porter, 2004 61). Children who grow up in collectivistic societies are expected to show lifelong loyalty to the group (Hofstede, 1991 50-51). In short, individualism versus collectivism, deals with the degree to which one thinks in terms of I versus we either ties between individuals are loose or people are part of gummy ingroup throughout their lives (Samovar &038 Porter, 2004 61).Contrary to the stereotype, Japan actually ranks in the middle of this dimension, with 46 points but is still defined as being a collectivistic culture (Hofstede, 1991 67). An interesting theory stated by Kumon Shumpei, a Japanese anthropologist, characterizes Japanese as contextualists rather than collectivists, as is the case in both Hofstede and Halls studies. A contextualist retains a personal identity, which the collectivist believably loses, but this personal identity is virtually inseparable from the contextual identity.Thus, the individual changes, depending on the context he is in or the people he is with. One of the arguments Kumon makes to support the theory is that most Japanese endure to in-groups in order to reach a self-realization. But one could argue that even in these self-realization in-groups the members strive to maintain harmo ny and act for the realize of the group, making them predominantly collectivistic (Hendry, 1998 22-39). 5. 4 Femininity versus masculinity One of the main differentiations between mannish and feminine cultures is how gender roles are distributed in cultures.Thus masculine cultures create clearly distinct gender roles men are supposed to be self-confident, tough and concerned with the material aspect of life, whereas women are expected to be modest, tender and dealing with the quality of life. Thus according to Hofstede Japan is a highly masculine culture (Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 77), whereas in masculine countries both people are taught to be ambitious and competitive. It should be mentioned though that females ambitions are some quantify directed towards the achievements of their brothers and later in life their husbands and sons.According to Hofstedes index, Japan is one of the more masculine countries, scoring 95 be as number one (Hofstede, 1991 96). 14 5. 5 long-term versu s short-term orientation Michael Harris Bond originally found the fifth dimension in the answers of student samples from 23 countries in 1985 in Hong Kong, and later it was incorporated by Hofstede in his value dimensions index. The reason why this dimension was not found in the original IBM data was due to the fact that the IBM questionnaires were composed from the minds and values of westerlyers whereas the fifth dimension was composed from the minds and values of Easterners.The fifth dimension, nevertheless, is present crossways all 23 cultures taking part in the survey (Hofstede, 2001 71-73). Long-term orientation, also known as Confucian Dynamism, is composed of the following values being determinate or firm, prudent, arranging relationships by status as well valuing interpersonal relationships, as well as having a common sense of shame, saving ones face, having a great deal of respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favors and gifts.Japan ranks as number 4 o n the Long-term Orientation exponent Values, with 80 points (Hofstede, 2001 351356). 6. Critical perspectives on Hofstede There has been a great deal of critique of Hofstedes value dimensions when dealing with culture analyses, which this paper will shortly discuss simply to show that the author of this paper is indeed aware of the advantages as well as disadvantages when using Hofstedes value dimensions in order to analyze a specific culture.One of the most fresh Danish critical analyses was performed by Susan Baca at the Aalborg University where it is being argued that Hofstedes IBM-based resonance which is supposed to depict characteristic traits visible in cultures cannot be used simply due to the fact that IBMemployees from a specific culture cannot be representative for the culture in question as a whole (Baca, 1999 11). One can argue that since Hofstede published his IBM-based rapport several other culture-analytics (e. . Triandis, Brislin and Bond) have made further analy ses, which do not exactly controvert Hofstedes value dimensions. These analyses both support Hofstedes dimensions, as well as having reached the same conclusions. One can also add that since the amount of IBM-employees amounted to hundreds of thousands it is only logical to conclude that one did find enough traits, which can be viewed as characteristic for the cultures in question. 15Another aspect of Hofstedes survey-based value dimensions, which is being criticized is the fact that his model is static, and can ultimately not be used because surely the cultures in question studied by Hofstede must have changed over the time since he performed the survey from 1968 to 1973. This is one of the reasons why the paper is looking at the cultural and historical influence on Japanese behavior over time in order to see if Hofstedes value dimensions are still valid in the Japanese culture that this paper is dealing with.Susan Baca is also criticizing Hofstede for actually separating a given culture into several, isolated dimensions, strongly supported by Turner and Trompenaars. For instance, Hofstede is portrait the American culture as highly individualistic, but does not describe the interaction people have with each other among the different in-groups and if one can categorize this interaction as being highly individualistic as well or not (Baca, 1999 15). To this, the author of this paper can only say, using Hofstedes own words that this papers main task is to study cultures, and not individuals. (Hofstede, 2001 15).Additionally, in order to back up Hofstedes theory, this paper is also to refer to Halls theory on Chronemics as well as a more general cultural analysis of the Japanese culture. 7. Edward Hall Another cultural framework used in this paper in order to gain deeper behavior knowledge of the Japanese culture, is Halls concept of Chronemics as well as his theory on low-context and high-context cultures. According to the American sociologist, Edward Hall, the world is divided into monochronic and polychronic culture, also known as the concept of Chronemics. It is a communicatory behavior that s fliers to how people use time to communicate.Lateness, for example, can communicate messages of power (waiting in the doctors office), attraction (arriving early for the first date), or identity (being fashionably late). Chronemics, like all other nonverbal behavior is culturally based. Different cultures have different rules governing the use and meaning of time. Halls bill between monochronic and polychronic cultures highlight the different ends of the cultural spectrums of how cultures view time. A cultures conception of time can thus be examined from Halls monochronic and polychronic classifications. 16Monochronic cultures see time as a measurable, quantifiable entity, which is linear. Thus, being punctual, scheduling, planning tasks to match time frames are valued behaviors. In the monochronic culture time becomes a concrete and segment ed reality where only one thing can be done at a time without interruptions. Additionally, in negotiations, monochronic peoples main focus is on goals, tasks and results, rather than relationships. Polychronic cultures, on the other hand, tend to view time as nonlinear most as a general guideline, which has no substance or structure. There is thus a circular or cyclical quality to time.Punctuality and scheduling is done but rarely found in monochronic cultures. Additionally, people from polychronic cultures are able to do many things at one time, and do not mind interruptions. Because time is not linear or segmented, duplicate specific activities with specific time frames is not done. Times and activities are fluid. Finally, in negotiations, polychronic peoples main focus is on relationships and people. Japan belongs to the polychronic cultures. In a negotiation context, the Japanese want to get to know their business counterparts, and they feel that the best way to do so is by agreeable in long conversations with them.This reflects the fact that the Japanese culture is long-term relationship oriented. Negotiators from polychronic cultures are thus relationship-focused. Monochronic and polychronic time orientations tend to produce two other significant cultural phenomena the difference between high and low context cultures, which refers to the fact that when people communicate, they take for granted how much the listener knows nigh the subject under discussion. Negotiators from monochronic cultures are thus deal-focused. Although Edward T.Hall classified Japan as a polychronic culture, Gesteland argues that the Japanese business people expect strict promptness in meetings and close tenderness to schedule. Punctuality in Japan aptitude be ruled by the high level of uncertainty avoidance and the maintenance of group harmony, which is essential for the Japanese culture. Hall also discusses and distinguishes between high-context and low-context cultures. H e views meaning and context as being interconnected. The difference between high and low context cultures depends on how much meaning is found in the context versus in the code. 17One can think of code as the message, and of context as setting or circumstance, including the people, in which the message appeared. In low-context communication, the listener knows very little and must be informed roughly every detail. In high-context communication, on the other hand, the listener is already contexted, and does not need to be given much background study. According to Hall, low-context cultures, such as the American culture, tend to place more meaning in the language code and very little meaning in the context. colloquy tends thus to be specific, explicit, and analytical.In analyzing messages, low-context cultures tend to focus on what was tell and give literal meaning to each word. Low-context cultures tend to use a direct verbal-expression style in which the situation context is not emphasized, important information is usually carried in explicit verbal messages, people tend to straight express their opinions and intend to persuade others to accept their viewpoints, and self-expression, verbal fluency, and eloquent deliverance are valued. In high-context cultures, on the other hand, such as the Japanese culture, meaning is embedded more in the context rather than the code.In this case, what was said cannot be understood by the words alone one has to look at who said it, when they said it, where they said it, how they said it, the circumstances in which they said it, and to whom they said it. Each variable will thus help define the meaning of what was said. Hall states People raised in high-context systems expect more from others than do the participants in lowcontext systems. When talking about something that they have on their minds, a high-context individual will expect his interlo neglector to know whats bothering him, so that he doesnt have to be speci fic.The result is that he will talk around and around the point, in effect putting all the pieces in place except the crucial one (Hall 1977, p. 98). This is also the case with the behavior of a Japanese negotiator he expects the other party to know exactly what he wants to obtain from the negotiation, and what type of a deal he is looking for. 18 In short, the difference between high and low context cultures depends on how much meaning is found in the context versus in the code, or, in high-context exchanges, much of the burden of meaning appears to fall on the listener.In low context cultures, the burden appears to fall on the speaker to accurately and thoroughly convey the meaning in her spoken or written message. Conclusively, according to Hall, Japan and the Japanese negotiator belongs to the polychronic culture type. Thus, in a negotiation context, the Japanese want to get to know their business counterparts by engaging in long conversations with them. This again reflects the fact that the Japanese culture is long-term relationship oriented. Additionally, Japan is a high-context culture, where meaning is embedded more in the context rather than the code.Japanese negotiators expect thus more from the other party and when something is bothering them, they tend to express this indirectly (for instance by using silence) (Cohen, 1997 159-160, Rowland, 1993 68-69). Finally, although Edward T. Hall classified Japan as a polychronic culture, Gesteland argues that the Japanese business people expect strict punctuality in meetings and close adherence to schedule. Punctuality in Japan might be ruled by the high level of uncertainty avoidance and the maintenance of group harmony, which is essential for the Japanese culture (Hall, 1973, 1977, Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 69, 179-180). 8.Cultural Dimensions This chapter is to discuss and analyze which values and cultural dimensions that are present and dominant in Japan in order to understand the behavior of a Japanese n egotiator Confucianism Ie The WA-concept Isolation geographical &038 political Uniqueness western influence 19 8. 1 Confucianism The cultural perspective has for some time provided the dominant paradigm in proportional studies management, organization and cross-cultural negotiations. Even before Hofstedes survey on cultural values, international studies of organization generally regarded culture as the strike explanatory factor for cross-cultural differences.One of the most important influences on Japanese everyday life, culture and behavior was, and still is, Confucianism, which entered Japan via Korea in the fifth Century. Japanese culture and behavior reflect the values of collectivism and harmony, and are highly inspired and influenced by Confucianism. Confucius (Kongzi, 551-479 BC) writing around the time of Socrates but a while before Jesus Christ, based his ideas on implicit respect for tradition, on a strict hierarchy of primary relationships between family-members, and then again between the people and their rulers.His philosophy was intended to guide peoples everyday life, to regulate social behavior, and it established a mode of thought and habit that has persisted and that blended well with other belief systems that were and still are present in Japan, such as Buddhism and Shinto. The central concepts of the Confucian ethic were summarized in the Three Cardinal Relationships ruler guides subject, scram guides son, and husband guides wife), five everlasting virtues (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity, and the doctrine of the mean (harmony). In this teaching, focus is on the agreement of the inferior to the superior.The assumption is that society needs a hierarchical order in which every individual has his or her own place, and the peace and harmony prevail if everyone follows the proper manner of conduct. These concepts are the fundament of the Japanese society to this very day. Also, the Confucian teachings emphasi zed uprightness, righteousness, loyalty, sincerity, reciprocity, and benevolence as personal virtues. The principle of filial piousness was especially useful during the Tokugawa period when family was the social and economic unity of society. Occupation and property belonged to the family.Continuation of the family line was thus a primary concern because it was a necessity for keeping ones position and income. Individuals often sacrificed their happiness to ensure survival of the family. After Japan was centralize under the Meiji government in the nineteenth century, the concept of filial piety was expended to embrace the idea of loyalty to the emperor, who was regarded as the father of the nation. 20 The Confucian concepts of hierarchy in human society and respect for age were useful in the feudal society, also during the Tokugawa period, which was structured hierarchically.Its stability rested on individuals dutiful fulfillment of obligations to their superiors and maintenance o f proper conduct in daily life. The general rules of conduct were respect for seniors in social rank and age, and acknowledgement of the superiority of man over women. Additionally, Confucius laid down that Ren or benevolence was the supreme virtue the follower can attain. As a strictly natural and humanistic love, it was based upon spontaneous feelings obliging through education. In order to attain Ren, you have to practice Li, which represents social norms.The latter can be interpreted as rituals, rites or proprieties and includes all moral codes and social institutions. As Li is a term for moral codes and social institutions, one could assume that the practice of Li is to enforce social conformity at the comprise of the individual. However, an individual personality is not an entity cut off from the group. According to Confucius, in order to establish one self, one has to establish others. There is interdependence between the individual and the group that is essential in order to create harmony.The strong Japanese cultural preference for basing business transactions upon the quality of inter-personal relationships and for settling disputes through mediation rather than relying upon contracts and legal process can be seen to stem from this philosophy (McGreal 1995). According to Confucius, all societies deal with survival, production, distribution, and consumption yet they all develop different systems in order to survive and obtain their ultimate goals and aims. Things have changed in the Japanese society when it comes to material and technological development.As far as human relations and communication with foreigners are concerned, things have not changed. One can say that Japan has modernized, but it has not westernized just yet (Kodansha, 1994 202-218, McGreal, 1995 5-7, Cohen, 1997 159-160, Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 80, 119, 217, Samovar &038 Porter, 2004 213-217). 8. 2 Ie Japan is a Shinto, Confucianism and Zen Buddhism inspired culture, Confucianis m being the fundament, where everything and everyone is connected and relies on each other in order to exist. 21The concept of ie, or extended household/kinship unit in traditional Japan, thus take overing more than close family members all active under the same roof and under the authority of one male, describes this way of thinking, or the Japanese values, the best. The main focus in ie is on in-group bene adapts, harmony and family where interdependence and togetherness is essential (de Mooij, 2004 100-1003, Harumi, 1971). Although the ie-concept does not formally exist in the original form 8 , as it did during the pre-modern or feudal Japan, one still finds it in the underlying values of the Japanese people.The ie-concept 9 became dominant and visible during the Edo or Tokugawa period (16001867), where a strict political regime was introduced by the Tokugawa family, who, as well as retaining large estates, also took control of major cities, ports and mines in Japan. Under Tokugawa rule, Japan entered a period of national seclusion (sakoku), where the Japanese were forbidden to tour to or return from overseas or to trade abroad. Only the Dutch, Chinese and Koreans were allowed to remain and they were placed under strict supervision.Additionally, to ensure political security, the daimyo were necessary to make ceremonial visits to Edo every other year, and their wives and children were kept in permanent residence in Edo as virtual hostages of the government. The cost of this constant movement and the family ties in Edo made it difficult for the daimyo to remain anything but loyal. At the lower end of society, farmers were subject to a strong system of rules, which dictated their food, clothing and housing. Social mobility from one class to another was blocked social standing was determined by birth.Additionally, women in the Japanese society were fully submitted men 10 . Women were submitted either their fathers, husbands or in the case of widows, t heir eldest son with no legal rights. Ie authority extended household thus containing more than close family members all living under the same roof and under the authority of one male. Ie was formally abolished in 1947 with the introduction of the New Constitution, which prescribed a more Democratic family system based on equal rights of husbands and wives. Inspired by Confucianism. 10 This submission was further supported by the Civil law of 1898, which placed women in the family under the authority of men. 8 22 The remote family structure, ie, was officially abandoned in 1947, but one can still sense its presence, in a revised form, in todays Japanese society both in the corporal system where the party boss executive is the male, who has been working for the company longest time, and in family life where women take care of children and men provide for the well-being of the amily. Nevertheless, the rigid emphasis of these times on submitting unquestionably to rules of obedi ence and loyalty has lasted to the present day. Today the ie-concept is still visible in that Japanese businessmen do not treasure their business associates at home. There is both a practical and a social reason for not doing so. First of all, the typical Japanese home is small and a larger group of people simply cannot fit in. Second, Home for the Japanese is very private.It is generally only open to relatives, long-time friends, childrens friends and their own family the so-called in-group. Additionally, salary has for many years been linked to the age of employees until they entered their forties to fifties age a male worker had thus a lifetime-employment guarantee until they reached their fifties. However, this system does not operate in small-business sector. The seniority system is one of the special characteristics of Japanese employment practices.Since the 1990s, however, there has been a substantial increase in the number of companies, who are reconsidering this type of employment system, and progress is being made in introducing a new requital system based on employees performance rather than their age and the amount of time they have worked for the company in question (Sugimoto, 1997 80, Kodansha, 1994 117-118, Hendry, 1998 22-39). In short, ie puts an emphasis upon continuity, succession practices, and some of the socio ghostly (e. . volunteer organizations such as environmental movement groups) chokes that still occupy an important place in Japan today (Refsing, 1990, 11-25, Bando, 1980 27-29, Hendry, 1998 22-39, Harumi, 1971 38-39, Sugimoto, 1997 80, Kodansha, 1994 117-118) 8. 3 The Wa-concept According to Wierzbicka, cultural values and behavior of a particular culture can be found in a core concept. For Japan this core concept is wa, which means harmony, unity or the desire to be one with those of your in-group.The wa-concept illustrates the concept, with several aspects (please see below), that although people have differences, it is the most convenient when people want the same thing at the deepest level. 23 This deep level of sharing underlies the desire for harmony at the interpersonal level, as well as a high level of consideration of others within ones group, and creates a unity among members of the in-group. In Japan, individuals are thus expected to act in ways that protect the unity or wa of the in-group (Wierzbicka, 1992).The several aspects, which the Wa-concept consists of, are described and discussed below Enryo is an aspect that is encompassed in wa, illustrates the effort of avoiding explicit opinions, assessments, or other displays of personal feelings. It is thus a form of self-restraint that proscribes the brining of attention to oneself and ones personal desires in order to avoid having others think badly of one. Japan has been categorized as a high-context culture, and in a communicative context, the meaning is often implicit. The focus is thus on the listener and his or her ability to understand implicit messages.Sasshi refers thus to the ability to guess or intuit another persons meaning without that person having to express it directly. Implicit communication is essential in a collective culture where maintaining harmony and avoiding conflicts is essential. Amae refers to a form of mutual dependency, or a relationship in which one person is in a protective stance toward another (Wierzbicka, 1992). The desire for amae motivates one to belong to a group and depend on another person. Amae emphasizes thus a protective relationship and a mutual dependency between the members of the in-group.Giri refers to a type of obligation felt toward others who have done something good for the person. According to Befu, it is a moral imperative to perform ones duties toward members of ones group (Befu, 1986 162). It is also a long-term relationship and a sense that one will be forever in the other persons debt. This sense of obligation is very typical in a culture that stresses the wa-conc ept as well as in collectivist cultures, where members of the in-group are closely tied to each other. Awase refers to the ability to always be able to adjust to the situation or the circumstances.The self is thus constantly changing and moving with the situation, whereas the group is constant and needs to be maintained. Thus, maintaining wa equals being flexible in situations, and not on consistently following ones principles. 24 Kenson involves discounting ones abilities and to avoid standing out in order to maintain the status quo of a relationship. Kenson is sometimes manifested in a verbal apology, and it demonstrates a desire not to disturb the nature of the relationship, and a desire to maintain group harmony.For instance, a speaker may begin his or her speech by apologizing to the audience for his or her low status or insufficient knowledge on the topic this depicts humility. Kata refers to the constant and familiar way something is done. In Japan, there is a kata or form f or almost everything from the way one plays ball to the way one performs a tea ceremony. The Japanese thus value form over function and process over outcome an important element to remember when touch on in negotiations with the Japanese.This again refers to the uncertainty-avoidance that is present in the Japanese culture, which illustrates itself in the form of strict rules and regulation (Wierzbicka, 1992, Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 5354). 8. 4 Isolation Another dimension characterizing Japan is the historical separateness of Japan from the rest of the world 11 , and the strong belief in the uniqueness of the Japanese culture and society. Its distance from the Asiatic continent and from the rest of the world had a crucial influence over the formation of the Japanese society and culture.The isolation began during the Tokugawa period when the Tokugawa government was try to create relative peace and security. Instead, the government was facing stagnation, corruption and isolation . Famines and pauperism among the peasants and samurai weakened the system even further. Additionally, foreign ships (from Russia, Britain and the USA) started to examine Japans isolation with increasing insistence, and Japan realized that their defenses were outdated and ineffective. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the US Navy arrived with his famous black ships to demand the opening of Japan to trade, followed y other countries. This resulted in a stream of antigovernment feeling among the Japanese due to the fact that it failed to defend Japan against foreigners and of neglecting the national reconstruction and modernisation. 11 The first contact with the West occurred about 1542, when a Portuguese ship, blown off its course to China, landed in Japan. 25 After 200 years of total isolation from the outside world due to the fear of westerly and Christian invasion or superiority, Japan agreed to open the country to the outside world.Nevertheless, 200 years of isolation has re sulted in a rather great amount of regulations, etc. (one may argue that this is a undercover form of protectionism) that are there in order to adopt an e. g. occidental product to the needs and circumstances of the Japanese culture. This separateness, or isolation, has also caused the Japanese to be extremely aware of anything that comes from outside, and they thus strongly distinguish between foreign and native culture, as well as its products and innovations (Reischauer, 1995 32, Kodansha, 1994 32-37, 131-132, Wakaba, 1996 4-12). 8. 5Uniqueness The Japanese people have long believed that they are the children or descendants of gods, living in a divinely land. In the 18th century, the scholar, Motoori Norinaga, was responsible for resurrecting ancient myths about Japan and the Japanese. Before Norinagas time, Japanese scholar viewed China and its civilization as the most important in the world. Norinaga attacked this view, claiming that Japan was superior to any other country in the world. According to him, Japan was the country where the sunshine Goddess was born, making it the epicenter of all other nations.With the appearance from the early 19th century of Russian, British, and other foreign ships in the waters of Japan, there was an severe debate on how to react, since the country had had a policy of isolation from the rest of the world for two hundred years. The military government thus try to promote hate and fear of foreigners by law 12 . In 1825, Expulsion Edict was implemented, prohibiting all barbarians and occidentalers from entering Japan. If a foreign ship was seen, it was fired upon and driven off. If foreigners went ashore, they were captured and their ship destroyed. 2 Antiforeign attitudes in Japan have generally been limited to the official level. 26 The belief in superiority and uniqueness of all things Japanese have weakened but not entirely disappeared in the present-day Japan. Although this extraordinarily chauvinistic mentality was temporarily restrained after the defeat in WWII, the post-war economic miracle has reawakened the feelings once again. Nevertheless, the rigid, exclusive world view that has been present in pre-1945 Japan, no longer dominates the country.Ultra-nationalism has been guilty at least in mainstream social, political, and intellectual life. The ideology that has its place is a set of rules by which society generally has learned to operate efficiently. The set of rules are learned from parent, the authority figures, the educational system and the mass media, and contain among other things social solidarity, or collectivistic behavior and thinking, hierarchical social structure, or power distance, role playing, or tatemae, reciprocal obligations, or group harmony.Although this set of rules is far weaker than the pre-war ultra-nationalistic ideology, it is still more rigid and omnipotent than those of e. g. Western societies. In Japan, the rights of the group are thus prioritized over tho se of the individual, and there are rules for most activities, creating a dependency on others and on group, which again reinforces an ideal of rules, group harmony and collectivism. The Japanese ideal portrays men and women behaving modestly, speaking prudently, and avoiding offend others and maintaining in-group harmony. For them, the deal of individualism is un-noble, risky and illogical. The Japanese desire people to be polite, courteous and indirect with each other. The Japanese are only uncivil on rare occasions, striving to put the best face, as well as save face, on themselves and situations (Cohen, 1997146147, 184-186, 224). To express what one really thinks or feels in Japan is regarded as uncultivated and vulgar. The Japanese do not see themselves in first place as individuals, but as group-oriented members. The social group gives them approval, identity and companionship, status, and meaning as such with their lives.All the group members are interdependent. Matsumoto u sed a food model in order to describe human relations in Japan, calling it natto (fermented soybeans). Fermented soybeans sit in sticky glue of starch, and it is impossible to extract one without pulling out the others they are all connected by the same glue. According to Matsumoto, the beans represent the closeness and interdependence present in the Japanese culture (March, 1996 15-34, Kodansha, 1994 32-37, 131-132, Wakaba, 1996 4-12). 27 8. 6 Western InfluenceThe Japanese culture has been greatly influenced by Western cultures throughout the years, such as the British, the Prussian (e. g. in 1889, Japan created Western-style musical composition greatly influenced by Prussia), the Portuguese, and the American. The Western influence entered the shores of Japan through trade, Christianity (missionaries) and war (WWII and the American occupation), as well as through cultural and business exchanges (e. g. through travels and international business). During the mid-16th Century, the E uropeans made their first appearance on the shores of Japan.The first Portuguese to be shipwrecked in 1543 found an appreciative Japanese response for their skills in making firearms. The Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, arrived in 1549, and was followed by more missionaries who born-again local lords to Christianity (several hundred thousand converts particularly in Nagasaki) keen to kale from foreign trade and assistance with military supplies. Initially, the Japanese emperor cut the advantages of trading with Europeans and tolerated the arrival of Christianity as a counterbalance to Buddhism.However, this tolerance gradually turned into suspicion of a religion, which he saw as a threat to his rule. This suspicion resulted in rulings against Christianity and the crucifixion of 26 foreign priests and Japanese believers in 1597. The prohibition and the prosecution of Christianity continued under the Tokugawa government until it reached its peak in 1637 with the brutal suppres sion by the authorities of the Christianled Shimabara Rebellion. This put an end to the Christian Century although the religion continued to be practiced in secret until it was officially allowed at the end of the 19th Century.Additionally, in order to glide by Christianitys presence in Japan, it was required for every family to register a Buddhistic temple, becoming a familiar scene in every community. Because of this religious policy, all Japanese today are Buddhist by default. The Western influence continued during the Meiji period (1868-1912) when the Japanese economy underwent a fall course in westernization and industrialization. An influx of Western experts was encouraged and Japanese students were sent abroad to acquire expertise in modern technologies.During the Meiji period, the process of modernization and industrialization took place in Japan, inspired by Western philosophers. An almost obsessive admiration and adaptation of Western ideas and culture had taken place during this period. 28 By the 1890s, the Japanese government leaders were concerned by the spread of liberal Western ideas and encouraged nationalism and traditional Japanese values. Japan was becoming more confident and an equal player to the Western powers, resulting in the abolition of foreign treaty rights and, in the years to come, in nationalism.This continued till Japans defeat in WWII, and the American occupation. The main aim of the occupation was to reform the Japanese government through demilitarization, the trial of war criminals and the removal of militarist and ultranationalists from the government. Additionally, a new typography was introduced, which dismantled the political power of the emperor, forcing him to publicly reject any claim to divine origins. Once again, Japan was influenced, if not ruled, by Western powers. Finally, in the late 19th century, Western Europe became its model for modernization.