The Sinking of the Titanic :: essays research papers

IntroductionThe R.M.S. Titanic sideswiped an iceberg at 1140 p.m. on April 14, 1912. Estimated to be able to stay afloat for 2 days under the worst scenario, the ship sank in less than 3 hours Gannon, 1995. Main Cause for sinkThe iceberg created a 300-foot gash in the Titanics hull above and below the waterline. Structural Errors That Accelerated the Sinking stigma crispinessTests on Titanics stain showed that the steel had high sulfur content, which increases the crispness of steel by disrupting the grain structure Hill, 1996. This increase in breakableness contributed to the severity of the hullsdamage. Titanics steel showed high levels of oxygen, which leads to an increased ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. For Titanics steel, that temperature was determined to be 25 to 35 degrees C Hill, 1996. The water temperature that night was below freezing. The molded iron rivets that fastened the hull plates to the Titanics main structure also failed because of brittle fractu re during the collision with the iceberg. Low water temperatures contributed to this failure Garzke and others, 1994.Ships Mid theatrical roleContributing to this failure in the midsection was the design of Titanics vast spiral staircase. The staircase not besides weakened the midsections structure, but served as a means for water to pass up through the ship. As it filled with water, the bow submerged, raising the stern out of water. When the stern reached an incline of about 45 degrees, the stresses in the ships midsection (15 tons per square inch) caused the steel to fail and the bow to rip loose and sink Gannon, 1995. ConpartmentsThe lower section of the Titanic was divided into sixteen major watertight compartments. Actually, the compartments were watertight only in the horizontal direction--their tops were open.After the collision, six watertight compartments began weft with water. Soon, water spilled over the tops. Scientists fork over concluded that the watertight compartm ents contributed to the disaster by keeping the flood waters in the bow of the ship Gannon, 1995.If in that location had been no compartments, the incoming water would have spread out, and the Titanic would have likely remained afloat for another six hours. Human Errors that Accelerated the SinkingCaptains mistakeCaptain E. J. Smith had not slowed the ships pelt along that night, although the ships wireless operators had received several ice warnings. The ship was moving at more than 22 knots.Crews mistakeThe sea was a "flat calm," a rarity for these waters.

Structuring a Successful Composition Course Essay -- English Writing T

Thinking about how I would social organization my classroom for a establishment course creates a dilemma for me. I had a great make in my high school small-arm courses. I really responded to how it was taught and make a own(prenominal) connection to the regulate I was doing. Originally, I valued to model my classroom after the cardinal I had loved so much. The readings I get hold of done concerning postmodernist techniques being used in a composition course fuck off also seemed very sympathetic to me, but present a varied classroom experience. James Berlin claims in belief make-up we are tacitly teaching a rendition of reality and the students turn out and mode of operation in it (235). Without dealing with the forces students are contending with I would be indoctrinating them with my own ideology and non teaching them the tools to understand and train with these systems for themselves. The puzzle is how flock I finalize these two teaching styles to fit into my rendition of a productive and prosperous classroom?The initial thing I would be touch on with when teaching a course such as this is how to get the students to want to do the work. I know that most kids do not want each part of schoolwork period, but how can I make the work interesting enough to get kids to at least have or so kind of connection to their work? My archetypal instinct would be to set a short writing occupation with a few options for topics concerning the kids personal lives, family situations, or friends. James Sosnoski in his move postmodernist Teachers in Their Postmodern Classrooms Socrates Begone attempts to create a series of writing engagements for his postmodern classroom. His first assignment would not be as concerned with the individuals issues, but he would have the students write about ... ...for my teaching is to teach my students to understand themselves and how they fit into the systems that partake their lives in so many ways. How I am going to go about doing that I have not figured out rather yet.Works CitedAlthusser, Louis. Ideology and Ideological assign Apparatuses. Althusser, Lenin 127-86.Berlin, James A. Contemporary topic The Major Pedagogical Theories. Illinois National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. 233-48.Clifford, John. The clear in Discourse. New York The groundbreaking Language Association of America, 1991. 38-51.Jarratt, Susan, A. Feminism and piece The Case for Conflict. New York The fresh Language Association of America, 1991. 105-123.Sosnoski, James, J. Postmodern Teachers in Their Postmodern Classrooms SocratesBegone New York The advance(a) Language Association of America, 1991. 198-219. Structuring a Successful Composition Course leaven -- English Writing TThinking about how I would structure my classroom for a composition course creates a dilemma for me. I had a great experience in my high school composition courses. I really responded to how it was taught and made a personal connection to the work I was doing. Originally, I wanted to model my classroom after the one I had loved so much. The readings I have done concerning postmodern techniques being used in a composition course have also seemed very appealing to me, but present a different classroom experience. James Berlin claims in teaching writing we are tacitly teaching a version of reality and the students place and mode of operation in it (235). Without dealing with the forces students are contending with I would be indoctrinating them with my own ideology and not teaching them the tools to understand and work with these systems for themselves. The problem is how can I reconcile these two teaching styles to fit into my version of a productive and successful classroom?The initial thing I would be concerned with when teaching a course such as this is how to get the students to want to do the work. I know that most kids do not want any part of schoolwork period, but how can I make the work interesting enough to get kids to at least have some kind of connection to their work? My first instinct would be to assign a short writing task with a few options for topics concerning the kids personal lives, family situations, or friends. James Sosnoski in his essay Postmodern Teachers in Their Postmodern Classrooms Socrates Begone attempts to create a series of writing assignments for his postmodern classroom. His first assignment would not be as concerned with the individuals issues, but he would have the students write about ... ...for my teaching is to teach my students to understand themselves and how they fit into the systems that affect their lives in so many ways. How I am going to go about doing that I have not figured out quite yet.Works CitedAlthusser, Louis. Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses. Althusser, Lenin 127-86.Berlin, James A. Contemporary Composition The Major Pedagogical Theories. Illinois National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. 233-48.Cliffor d, John. The Subject in Discourse. New York The Modern Language Association of America, 1991. 38-51.Jarratt, Susan, A. Feminism and Composition The Case for Conflict. New York The Modern Language Association of America, 1991. 105-123.Sosnoski, James, J. Postmodern Teachers in Their Postmodern Classrooms SocratesBegone New York The Modern Language Association of America, 1991. 198-219.

Ferrari Case Study

ENZO FERRARI The make of the Motor Racing and Sport Cars Knowledge Cluster Case ingest of an inspired leader Piero Formica Taking its place to support the others The issue consort dancing unitedly. Eliot (1970) Little Gidding in the Four Quartets In 2002 Ferrari was awarded as the most respected Italian company in the world, according to a survey of more than 1000 top populaceagers in twenty countries crossways the globe. Ferraris legend extends well beyond the automotive world and force hasten and sports-car industry, to reach the broader personal line of credit companionship as well as the general public.The legend has been built around the efforts and close of his founder and mentor, Enzo Ferrari. in that location is an untold part of the outstanding legacy that Enzo Ferrari left behind him. This is the invaluable contribution he make to the basis of a association compact in the motor racing and sports car industry. It deserves to be observed that the fashioning of the Ferraris companionship clod bears much relation to the combine puzzle out of different in the flesh(predicate)ities, all warm and extremely demanding, who, to a greater or lesser extent, sh ared Extraordinary ingenuity and sensibility a retentive with a way to face work with humility. Strong conviction and stubborn determination with which they pursued their objectives. Awareness of their worth, having started from scratch and knowing that results are obtained with struggle and diligence, non by chance or shortcuts. On top of these characters there was the Ferraris anticonformist posture. He was some star who thought for himself. His innovative daring made appeal to him to deal with young men endowed with freshness and imagination. . 1898-1917 On-the-field association and breeding Since the very ahead of eon days of his education Ferrari was puzzlen by the silent knowledge embedded in the field of the fathers stick as a rural metal worker. His fathers compa ny, a fine foundry, made sheds and gangways for the railroads in Italy. Ferrari was never interested in school. He had aspirations. One of these was to be a race car driver. Ferraris on-the-field education produced the cultural space which enabled, sustain and thrived nut education and training in sports-car.The case of Ferrari Owners Club Florida office Drivers Education The school is recommended for anyone without significant track experience or not completely familiar with the track, those who have never attended a formal driving school and anyone wishing to simply convey a bust driver. A morning and after lunch classroom session combined with individual instruction and ample track time allow for greatly enhance informality level at speed. Diploma will record accomplishment as a Florida Region Driving School graduate. each(prenominal) drivers will participate in one of three hostsThe beginning grouping is designated for drivers with little or no track experience, who simply wishing to drive on the track and enjoy their cars at a very controlled speed. The touring group is intended to allow enjoyment of your car at speeds greater than allowed on public roads. The sport group requires a full FIA rated fire drive including shoes, socks, and gloves. No passengers are allowed. A club approved driving teacher may ride in the car with permission of the track steward. Speeds are not limited but must be well indoors the capability of the driver and the car.The club reserves the right to determine, at the track, the allot run group for any participant. This decision will be establish on prior training, experience and demonstrated skills. The track stewards decision will be Final and reflect a concern for the drivers safety as well as the safety of others. 2. At the end of the First adult male War Building informal and personal relationships, and from the know-nothing land ascending the rivet slope of the Motor Racing Industry hill of knowledge deve lop barely 20, Ferrari spent much of his time frequenting the Bar de Nord on Turins Ports Nuova, getting to know people and making connections.He aimed at creating trust, fashion, roles, and maximising the joint crossing of personal relationships within his small groups of peers, interacting informally out of the shop floor. overlap and learning in the cafe, even playacting cards rather than playing by business cards in the meetings this was a common trait to the founders in most cases, blue collars and technicians of small companies in Italy. Ferrari got a railway line with CMN, a fledgling car cleric which concentrated on converting commercial vehicles left over from the war. His duties included test driving which he did in amidst delivering chassis to the coach builder.Through this association he got the chance to start racing himself at a time when drivers were far from the celebrity figures they would subsequently become (ironically) under the computer backup of team o wners like Enzo Ferrari. In 1920 he stainless second at the wheel of an Alfa Romeo in Targa Florio. Although Ferrari was a good racer, his talents was in the direction of arranging and handling of small details. 3. 1920s 3. 1 Creation of the Ferraris community of knowledge practice1 Throughout the 1920s Ferrari spent a lot of time judiciously massaging his commercial and engineering connections.He also began contact himself with a loyal cabal of close collaborators, including Gioacchino Colombo the man who would lastly design the graduation exercise Ferrari car after masterminding the Alpha 158s under Ferraris patronage and former Fiat technician Luigi Bazzi, a man who would survive into the 1960s as possibly Enzos longest-standing lieutenant, having victorly joined him in 1923. Bazzi had joined Alfa Romeo as long ago as 1922 after a spell in Fiats experimental department, and would afterward become tagged as the man who conceived the fearsome twin-engined Alfa Romeo Bimo tore in the 1930s. . 2 Team building by an autocatalytic process Transforming personal knowledge into organi sit downional knowledge Ferrari made Bazzi and Bazzi made Ferrari. Not only Bazzi was a wanted technical guiding hand, but also his long association with Enzo Ferrari enabled him to suffice smooth over the differences of opinion and temperamental problems which made working with his party boss an increasingly unpredictable, sometimes tempestuous, challenge in later on geezerhood. Through conference and discussion cognitive conflicts and disagreement were raised, which questioned the existing premises.This made possible the shimmy of personal knowledge into organisational knowledge. During the time with Alpha Romeo, Bazzi was also responsible for tantalising the highly respected engineer Vittorio Jano to leave Fiat to join the vie firm. Bazzi, who had also worked with Fiat, was at least partly responsible for persuading Ferrari that Jano was the right man for the job. Within months of joining Alfa, the ex-Fiat man was putting the finishing touches to the historic charged 2-litre P2, which made its competition debut in 1924. 3. 3 Creative creation by unexpected events The origin of the Prancing Horse logo 7th June 1923 a sequence of events gave rise to what is unquestionably regarded as one of the most wide identified logos used by any car maker in history. That day Ferrari won the first Savio circuit, which was run in Ravenna, Italy. after the event, a man elbowed his way through to the front of the excited constrict immediately surrounding Ferrari and shook the winner warmly by the hand. It false out that this was the father of Francesco Baracca, the legendary First World War Italian fighter ace who shot down no fewer than 35 enemy planes during the conflict.Baraccas squadron had sported a shield in the centre of which was a prancing long horse. by and by Ferrari met Francesco Baraccas mother, Countess Paolina. One day she give tongue to t o him, Ferrari, why dont you put my sons prancing horse on your cars it would bring you luck. Thus was born the famous Prancing Horse logo. The horse was vitriolic and has remained so. Ferrari added the canary yellow background because it is the colour of his town, Modena. 4. 1930s-1940s Clarity of imaging and enterprising goals at the core of Ferraris visionOver the 1930s Scuderia Ferrari was a small, autonomous form of the Alpha Romeo Company. At the heart of Ferraris disagreement with Alfa Romeo was the Milanese companys intention to come in motor racing under its own name in 1938, the Alfa Corse organisation absorbing the Scuderia Ferrari operation and transferring the Tipo 158 development which was essentially a Ferrari design and idea back to Milan. Enzo Ferrari clearly felt affronted by this challenge to his own personal domain. His ego urged him to go his own way. Ferrari abandoned the existing patterns and practices.He did something when people said it is crazy to do it. 5. The origin of knowledge pools and a knowledge cluster of motor racing enterprisers long-standing emulation and co-operation laypersonal collaboration across multiplex boundaries across cultures, functions, rivalries, geography featured in a mix of challenger and co-operation between motor racing entrepreneurs. Which gave birth, first, to knowledge pools and, whence, to a knowledge cluster2 The springboards for macrocosm through collaboration, rivalry and creative imitation.In a personality-driven context, the key players were strong heart individualists endowed with a hedgehog-minded3 personality, who relate everything to a single central vision and focus maniacally on executing it. By raising rivalry but also building relationships among people, they made changes happened beyond the conventional experience horizon. 5. 1 The healthy rivalry Bitter rivals to fellow Modena racing entrepreneur Enzo Ferrari were the Maserati brothers, the founders of Maserati in Bol ogna, Italy in 1914.The Trident trademark that still identifies Maserati cars today was designed by Mario, the artist among the Maserati brothers, who drew his inspiration from the Giambologna statue of Neptune in Bolognas main town square. sell the company to the Orsi family of Modena just before the Second World War, the firm was then moved to Modena where it is still based today. The brothers remained as technical collaborators for 10 years until 1948. In 1947, Enzo Ferrari founded the company that bears his name in Maranello, a few kilometres southeastward of Maserati.This marks the beginning of their long-standing rivalry. Enzo Ferrari and Maserati brothers felt themselves reciprocally free when kept apart from one another in creating a new tier of intra-domain business in the motor racing and sports-car industry. The challenge, which displayed itself in constant new models with original technical solutions, developed along the roads where Maserati could construct a series of excellent versions in terms of performance but less extreme and aggressive than Ferrari.Customers started to make their choices known they were looking for a flexible and dressed automobile, opting for the more conservative colours of the Maserati and for the increased on-board comfort and liveability which Ferrari had neglected in favour of sporty essentials. Yet, the same forces that kept apart the founding fathers later on bound up the inheritors and successors. Once involved in relationships with one another, they were no longer free They were part of the inexorable stream. Today Ferrari owns Maserati and together they form a specialised ndustrial group that is unique in the world. The deuce makes compete in complementary market sectors with cars that have different characteristics. age Ferrari offers compact two-door coupe and spiders for street use, which find their origins of design in the advanced research lab of Formula 1, Maserati works in a different way. Maseratis, with equal engine room to Ferrari, offer performance that is less extreme and a level of comfort and everyday usefulness that allows it to stand out as an authentic potassium touring vehicle of the highest level.Maserati and Ferrari have not lost the healthy rivalry of long ago. 5. 2 The golden handshake The Adam Smiths occult hand of the market must be accompanied by an lightless hand shake. Over the past five decades, Ferrari and Pininfarina have had the worlds known and most influential association between an automotive manufacturer and a design house. Though Enzo Ferrari and Battista Pininfarina yearned to work with each other in the early 1950s, the road to international stardom was hesitant to start. Ferrari was a man of very strong character, Sergio Pininfarina recalls. Therefore, Mr. Ferrari was not coming to Farina in Turin, and my father was not going to levy him in Modena, which was approximately 120-130 miles away. So they met halfway in Tortona. That fateful mee t would alter the worlds automotive playing field. Everything became extremely easy once they sat down at the table, Pininfarina continues. They never spoke about any casing of price. Both were very enthusiastic, for each thought, This will be great It was, I will give you one chassis, and you will make one car. The first steps were tentative, much like two outstanding dancers being opposite for the first time. The initial effort yielded a handsome perfectly proportioned 212 Inter cabriolet that had its official public debut at 1952s Paris railroad car Show. References Amidon, D. (2003), The Innovation SuperHighway, Butterworth-Heinemann, New York Berlin Isaiah (1953), The Hedgehog and the Fox, Simon &038 Schuster, New York, Crow, James, T. (1981), Ferraris Early Years. Road &038 confidential information 44 Forgacs, David and Robert, Lumley (1996), Italian Cultural Studies an Introduction, Oxford University bosom.Oxford Formica , Piero (2003), Industry and Knowledge Clusters Principles, Practices, Policy, Tartu University Press Chapter 2 Galt, Tony (1997) Lecture Italy, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay. Levin, Doron P. (1988), Enzo Ferrari, Builder of Racing Cars, is Dead at 90. New York Times, August 16. Section D23 Moritz, Charles (1968), Current Biography. 1968. New York H W Wilson Company 120- 122 Vorderman, Don (1980), The Man, The Myth, The Machine, Town &038 Country. February 26, 30, and 34 Web sites Ferrari History http//www. thecollection. com/new/maserati/history. htmHistory of Ferrari in Formula One http//home. clara. net/nigelk/history. htm Interview with Sergio Pininfarina, Automobilia, Milano, 1997 http//www. pininfarina. it/eng/history/cooperation/ferrari2. hypertext markup language Nre, Doug, An Appreciation of Enzo Ferrari, in Prova on-line Ferrari magazine Http//www. prova. com/ (look under Editorials) 51st Annual Pebble land concours delegance 19 Agust 2001 http//www. pininfarina. it/eng/press/edition/14. html Ferrari Owners Club Florida Region Drivers Educationhttp//www. focfloridaregion. com/education. htm &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212 1 A community of knowledge practice is a constituency of many different characters. This community helps to harness the creativity and promote cross-fertilization of ideas necessary for innovation (Formica 2003 Chapter 2 Amidon, 2003). The notion of communities of practice originated with John Seely Brown, the director of Xerox Corp. s Palo contralto Research Center (PARC). Brown suggested that At the simplest level, they are a small group of people whove worked together over a period of time not a team, not a task force, not inescapably an authorized or identified groupThey are peers in the work of real work.What holds them together is a common sense of adjudicate and a real need to know what the other knows. 2 Different communities of knowledge practice coalesce in a knowledge pool. Different knowledge pools form a knowledge cluster (Formica, 2003 Chapter 2). 3 The Greek poet Archilochus says The frustrate knows many things, but the hedgehog knows one big thing. The hedgehogs vision is of one, of a single substance. The hedgehog is a monist (Berlin, 1953).

Ancient Greece Essay

Grecian Mytho entery, set of diverse usanceal tales told by the antique classics nearly the exploits of deitys and heroes and their relations with ordinary mortals. The ancient Grecians worshiped galore(postnominal) another(prenominal) gods within a kindization that tolerated diversity. Un the like former(a) belief systems, Hellenic culture recognized no single truth or code and produced no sacred, indite schoolbook like the Bible or the Quran. Stories roughly the origins and actions of classic divinities varied widely, depending, for example, on whether the tale appeared in a comedy, tragedy, or epic poesy. Grecian mythology was like a daedal and rich linguistic process, in which the classics could express a capital range of perceptions about the universe of discourse. A Grecian urban center-state devoted itself to a busy god or group of gods in whose honor it built synagogues. The temple gener in ally housed a statue of the god or gods. The Grecians honored the citys gods in festivals and besides completeered sacrifices to the gods, commonly a domestic animal much(prenominal) as a goat. Stories about the gods varied by geographic status A god might digest cardinal set of characteristics in unitary city or region and quite different characteristics elsewhere.II A A1 PRINCIPAL FIGURES IN GREEK MYTHOLOGY Greek mythology has several(prenominal) distinguishing characteristics, in addition to its multiple versions. The Greek gods resembled human beings in their form and in their emotions, and they lived in a society that resembled human society in its levels of post and power. However, a crucial difference existed surrounded by gods and human beings benignityings get goingd, and gods were immortal. Heroes as well as played an important role in Greek mythology, and stories about them conveyed stark themes. The Greeks considered human heroes from the past closer to themselves than were the immortal gods.Gods Given the m ultiplicity of myths that circulated in Greece, it is problematical to present a single version of the genealogy (family history) of the gods. However, 2 directs together provide a genealogy that more or less ancient Greeks would fuck off recognized. single is the account minded(p) by Greek poet Hesiod in his Theogony (Genealogy of the Gods), write in the 8th hundred BC. The otherwise account, The Library, is attri exclusivelyed to a mythographer (compiler of myths) named Apollodorus, who lived during the 2nd century BC. The Creation of the Gods According to Greek myths about creation, the god loony bin (Greek for goggle Void) was the foundation of all things.From Chaos came Gaea (Earth) the bottomless depth of the underworld, know as Tartarus and Eros (Love). Eros, the god of love, was inevitable to draw divinities together so they Greek Mythology might produce issue. Chaos produced Night, while Gaea first bore Uranus, the god of the heavens, and after(prenominal) him produced the mountains, sea, and gods kn possess as hulks. The goliaths were strong and large, and they committed arrogant deeds. The earlyest and most important Titan was Cronus. Uranus and Gaea, who came to per male childify Heaven and Earth, besides gave birth to the Cyclopes, one-eyed giants who make thunderbolts. knock against also Creation Stories. A2 A3 A4 Cronus and nandu Uranus tried to block any successors from winning over his supreme position by forcing back into Gaea the children she bore. besides now the youngest child, Cronus, thwarted his military chaplain, cutting off his genitals and tossing them into the sea. From the bloody foam in the sea Aphrodite, goddess of sexual love, was born. After wounding his father and taking a panache(p)(a) his power, Cronus became ruler of the universe. unless Cronus, in turn, feared that his sustain son would supplant him. When his sister and wife Rhea gave birth to offspringHestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and PoseidonCro nus swallowed them.Only the youngest, genus Zeus, escaped this fate, because Rhea tricked Cronus. She gave him a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes to swallow in place of the baby. Zeus and the Olympian Gods When fully bring onn, Zeus forced his father, Cronus, to project the children he had swallowed. With their help and armed with the thunderbolt, Zeus made war on Cronus and the Titans, and overcame them. He established a new regime, based on full Olympus in northern Greece. Zeus ruled the sky. His blood chum salmon Poseidon ruled the sea, and his sidekick Hades, the underworld.Their sister Hestia ruled the shopping centerh, and Demeter took charge of the harvest. Zeus married his sister Hera, who became sprite of the heavens and guardian of marriage and childbirth. Among their children was Ares, whose sphere of influence was war. Twelve major gods and goddesses had their homes on raft Olympus and were known as the Olympians. Four children of Zeus and one child of Hera j oined the Olympian gods Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Demeter, and Ares. Zeuss Olympian offspring were Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, and A thuslya. Hera gave birth to Hephaestus.The Offspring of Zeus Zeus had numerous children by both(prenominal) mortal and immortal women. By the mortal Semele he had Dionysus, a god associated with wine and with other forms of intoxication and ecstasy. By Leto, a Titan, Zeus fathered the correspond Apollo and Artemis, who became two of the most important Olympian divinities. Artemis remained a virgin and took hunt slew as her special province. Apollo became associated with music and prophecy. People visited his oracle (shrine) at Delphi to look to his prophetic advice. By the nymph Maia, Zeus became father of Hermes, the Olympian tricker god who had the power to cross all frames of boundaries.Hermes guided the souls of the dead down to the underworld, Greek Mythology carried messages amongst gods and mortals, and wafted a magical sle ep upon the wakeful. Two other Olympian divinities, Hephaestus and Athena, had unusual births. Hera c at onceived Hephaestus, the blacksmith god, without a male partner. Subsequently he suffered the anger of Zeus, who once hurled him from Olympus for coming to the aid of his convey this mint down onto the island of Lemnos gritty Hephaestus. The birth of Athena was even stranger. Zeus and Metis, daughter of the Titan Oceanus, were the parents of Athena.But Gaea had warned Zeus that, after giving birth to the girl with whom she was pregnant, Metis would induce a son destined to rule heaven. To avoid losing his throne to a son, Zeus swallowed Metis, just as Cronus had previously swallowed his own children to thwart succession. Metiss child Athena was born from the head of Zeus, which Hephaestus split open with an axe. Athena, some other virgin goddess, embodied the power of practical intelligence in war furthere and crafts work. She also served as the protector of the city of Athe ns. other of Zeuss children was Persephone her pay off was Demeter, goddess of grain, vegetation, and the harvest.Once when Persephone was gathering flowers in a meadow, Hades, god of the underworld, live and abducted her, taking her down to the kingdom of the dead to be his bride. Her sadness-stricken mother wandered the world in search of her as a result, fertility odd the earth. Zeus commanded Hades to release Persephone, only when Hades had artfully given her a pomegranate seed to eat. Having consumed food from the underworld, Persephone was obliged to return down the stairs the earth for part of each class. Her return from the underworld each year meant the revival of nature and the beginning of spring.This myth was told especially in contact with the Eleusinian Mysteries, sacred rituals observed in the Greek town of Elevsis near Athens. The rituals offered initiates in the mysteries the hope of rebirth, just as Persephone had been reborn after her journey to the und erworld. numerous Greek myths report the exploits of the principal Olympians, exactly Greek myths also hint to a variety of other divinities, each with their particular sphere of influence. more(prenominal) of these divinities were children of Zeus, symbolizing the fact that they belonged to the new Olympian high society of Zeuss regime.The Muses, nine daughters of Zeus and the goddess of memory, Mnemosyne, presided over song, dance, and music. The Fates, three goddesses who controlled human life and destiny, and the Horae, goddesses who controlled the seasons, were be blend intingly the children of Zeus and Themis, the goddess of forebode justice and law. Far different in spirit were the Erinyes (Furies), ancient and repellent goddesses who had sprung from the earth after it had been impregnated with the blood of Uranuss severed genitals. Terrible though they were, the Erinyes also had a permit role in the world to pursue those who had murdered their own kin.A5 exuberan t Deities Human existence is characterized by dis put down together as well as order, and many of the most characteristic figures in Greek mythology exert a arightly disruptive effect. Satyrs, whom the Greeks imagined as part human and part dollar (or part goat), led lives dominated by wine and lust. Myths depicted them as companions of Dionysus who drunkenly pursued nymphs, spirits of nature represented as young and beautiful maidens. some of the jugs used at Greek symposia (drinking parties) carry images of satyrs. evenly rampantly, but more threatening than the satyrs, were the savage centaurs.These monsters, Greek Mythology depicted as half-man and half-horse, tended toward uncontrolled aggression. The centaurs are known for attack with their neighbors, the Lapiths, which resulted from an attempt to carry off the Lapith women at a wedding feast. This combat was depicted in sculpt on the Parthenon, a temple dedicated to Athena in Athens. The Sirens, usually portrayed as b irds with womens heads, posed a different multifariousness of threat. These island-dwelling enchantresses lured mariners to their deaths by the irresistible beauty of their song.The seafaring Greek hero Odysseus alone(predicate) survived this temptation by ordering his companions to block their own ears, to bind him to the mast of his ship, and to force out all his entreaties to be allowed to follow the lure of the Sirens song. B B1 B2 Mortals The Greeks had several myths to account for the origins of almsgiving. According to one version, human beings sprang from the ground, and this origin explained their devotion to the land. According to some other myth, a Titan molded the first human beings from clay. The Greeks also had a story about the destruction of humanity, similar to the biblical deluge.The Creation of Human Beings Conflicting Greek myths tell about the creation of humanity. Some myths separate how the populations of particular localities sprang directly from the ea rth. The Arcadians, residents of a region of Greece known as Arcadia, claimed this tubercle for their original inhabitant, Pelasgus (see Pelasgians). The Thebans boasted descent from earthborn men who had sprung from the spot where Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, had seeded the ground with the teeth of a sacred cream of tartar. According to another tale, one of the Titans, Prometheus, fashioned the first human being from water and earth.In the more usual version of the story Prometheus did not actually create humanity but simply lent it assistance through the gift of fire. Another tale dealt with humanitys re-creation. When Zeus planned to destroy an ancient race living on Earth, he sent a deluge. However, Deucalion, a son of Prometheus, and his wife Pyrrhathe Greek equivalents of the biblical Noah and his wifeput edible into a chest and climbed into it. Carried across the waters of the flood, they landed on turn on Parnassus. After the waters receded, the couple gratefully made sacrifices to Zeus.His response was to transfer Hermes to instruct them how to repopulate the world. They should cast stones behind them. Stones propel by Deucalion became men those thrown by Pyrrha, women. The Greek People According to myth, the various peoples of Greece descended from Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. virtuoso genealogy related that the Dorian and the Aeolian Greeks sprang from Hellens sons Dorus and Aeolus. The Achaeans and Ionians descended from Achaeos and Ion, sons of Hellens other son, Xuthus. These figures, in their turn, produced offspring who, along with children born of unionsGreek Mythology between divinities and mortals, made up the collection of heroes and heroines whose exploits constitute a central part of Greek mythology. C C1 C2 C3 Heroes Myths about heroes are particularly characteristic of Greek mythology. Many of these heroes were the sons of gods, and a number of myths entangled expeditions by these heroes. The expeditions generally rel ated to signals or combats. Scholars consider some of these myths partly historic in naturethat is, they explained events in the distant past and were handed down orally from one propagation to the next.Two of the most important of the semi historical myths involve the search for the Golden hook and the quest that led to the trojan horse contend. In other myths heroes such as Heracles and Theseus had to overcome fearsome monsters. Jason and the Golden Fleece Jason was a hero who sailed in the ship Argo, with a band of heroes called the Argonauts, on a dangerous quest for the Golden Fleece at the eastern end of the Black ocean in the land of Colchis. Jason had to fetch this family property, a rip off made of aureate from a winged ram, in order to regain his throne.A dragon that never slept guarded the fleece and made the mission nearly impossible. thank to the magical powers of Medea, daughter of the ruler of Colchis, Jason performed the impossible tasks necessary to win the fl eece and to concur it from the dragon. Afterward Medea took horrible revenge on Pelias, who had killed Jasons parents, stolen Jasons throne, and sent Jason on the quest for the fleece. She tricked Peliass daughters into cutting him up and change state him in a cauldron. Medeas story continue to involve horrific violence.When Jason rejected her for another woman, Medea once more used her magic to penalise herself with extreme cruelty. Meleager Jason and the corresponding generation of heroes took part in another adventure, with Meleager, the son of King Oeneus of Calydon and his wife Althea. At Meleagers birth the Fates pr economyed that he would die when a log burning on the hearth was completely consumed. His mother snatched the log and hid it in a chest. Meleager grew to manhood. One day, his father accidentally omitted Artemis, the goddess of the hunt, from a sacrifice. In revenge Artemis sent a mighty boar to plague the country.Meleager set out to destroy it, accompanied b y some of the greatest heroes of the day, including Peleus, Telamon, Theseus, Jason, and Castor and Polydeuces. The boar was killed. However, Meleager killed his mothers brothers in a argufy about who should receive the boar skin. In her anger Althea threw the log on to the fire, so ending her sons life she then hanged herself. Heroes of the Trojan War The greatest expedition of all was that which resulted in the Trojan War. The object of this quest was Helen, a beautiful Greek woman who had been abducted by Paris, son of King Priam of Troy.Helens husband Menelaus and his brother Agamemnon led an phalanx of Greeks to besiege Troy. After ten Greek Mythology years, with many heroes dead on both sides, the city fell to the trick of the Trojan Horsea giant wooden horse that the Greeks built and left outside the supply of Troy while their army pretended to withdraw. Not knowing that Greek heroes were hiding inside the horse, the Trojans took the horse into the city. The hidden Greeks then slipped out, opened the city gates and let their army in, thus defeating Troy. The Iliad, an epic poem attributed to Greek poet home run, tells the story of the Trojan War.The story continued with the Odyssey, another long poem attributed to kor, in which the Greek hero Odysseus made his way home after the Trojan War. Odysseus returned to his faithful wife, Penelope, whereas Agamemnon returned to be murdered by his faithless wife, Clytemnestra, and her lover. Historians considered the Trojan War entirely mythical until excavations in Turkey showed that there had been cities on the site of Troy and that fire had sunk one of these cities at about the time of the Trojan War, sometime from 1230 BC to 1180 BC. C4 C5 Heracles and Theseus.The deeds of the heroes Heracles (see Hercules) and Theseus exemplify a central theme in Greek mythology the conflict between finish and wild savagery. Each hero confronted and overcame monstrous opponents, yet neither enjoyed readable happines s. Heracles had been an Argonaut but left the expedition after being plunged into grief at the loss of his companion Hylas. In another story, a fit of madness led Heracles to kill his own wife and children. But he is best known for his feats of prowess against beasts and monsters, which began soon after his birth.The most difficult of these feats are known as the 12 labors, which are believed to represent efforts to overcome death and achieve immortality. Although Heracles died, his father, Zeus, gave him a place on Mount Olympus. Theseus successfully slew the Minotaur, a monster that was half man and half bull. On his voyage home to Athens, however, he forgot to hoist the white sails that would nonplus sensation the success of his adventure. According to one tale, Theseuss heartbroken father Aegeus, comprehend black sails, believed his son had died, and committed suicide. The Aegean Sea in which he drowned is presumably named after Aegeus.Oedipus No hero of Greek mythology has proved more fascinating than Oedipus. He destroyed a monster, the Sphinx, by answering its riddle. even so his ultimate downfall served as a terrifying warning of the mental unsoundness of human fortune. As a baby, Oedipus had been abandoned on a mountainside by his parents, King Laius and Queen Jocasta of Thebes, because of a prophecy that the child would grow up to kill his father and marry his mother. Saved by the pity of a shepherd, the childits identity unknownwas reared by the king and queen mole rat of the neighboring city of Corinth.In due course, Oedipus unwittingly fulfilled the prophecy, coordinated the horrific crimes he had committed with the equally ghastly self-punishment of piercing his own eyes with Jocastas brooch-pins. Greek Mythology III A Gods and Goddesses B THE genius OF GREEK GODS AND HEROES In many respects the gods and goddesses of Greek mythology resembled extraordinarily powerful human beings. They experienced emotions such as jealousy, love, and grie f, and they shared with humans a desire to assert their own authority and to punish anyone who flouted it.However, these emotions and desires took supernaturally bad form in gods and goddesses. As numerous literary descriptions and esthetic representations testify, the Greeks imagined their gods to amaze human shape, although this form was strongly idealized. The Greeks, moreover, modeled births between divinities on those between human beings. Apollo and Artemis were brother and sister, Zeus and Hera were husband and wife, and the society of the gods on Mount Olympus resembled that of an unruly family, with Zeus at its head. The gods could temporarily enter the human world.They might, for example, fall in love with a mortal, as Aphrodite did with Adonis Apollo with Daphne and Zeus with Leda, Alcmene, and Danae. Or they might destroy a mortal who displeased them, as Dionysus destroyed King Pentheus of Thebes for mocking his rites. Not all Greek divinities resembled human beings. They could also be un kittyny, strange, and alien, a quality made visible in artistic representations of monsters. For example, the snake-haired Gorgon Medusa had a stare that turned her victims to stone. The Graeae, sisters of the Gorgons, were gray-haired old crones from birth.They possess but a single tooth and a single eye between them. Typhoeus was a hideous monster from whose shoulders grew a hundred snakeheads with dark, flickering tongues. level off the major deities of Olympus showed alien characteristics at times. A re authoritative sign of divine power is the exponent to change shape, either ones own or that of others. Athena once transformed herself into a vulture Poseidon once took the form of a stallion. This ability could prove convenient such as when Zeus assumed the form of a swan to woo Leda. Zeus turned Lycaon, a disrespectful king, into a wolf to punish him for his wickedness.The ability to exercise power over the crossing of boundaries is a crucial attribute of divine power among the Greeks. Heroes Greek mythology also told how divinities interacted with heroes, a category of mortals who, though dead, were believed to retain power to influence the lives of the living. In myths heroes represented a kind of bridge between gods and mortals. Heroes such as Achilles, Perseus, and Aeneas were the products of a union between a deity and a mortal. The fact that the gods often intervened to help heroesfor example, during combatindicated not the heroes weakness but their special importance.Yet heroes were not the equals of the gods. With a logic characteristic of Greek myth, heroes typically possessed a mistake to balance out their removeional power. For example, the warrior Achilles, hero of the Trojan War, was invulnerable except in the heel. The prophet Cassandra, who warned the Trojans of dangers such as the Trojan Horse, Greek Mythology eternally prophesied the truth but was never believed. Heracles constituted an extreme example of this conundrum His awesome strength was balanced by his tendency to become a victim of his own excessive violence.Nevertheless, the gods allowed Heracles to cross the ultimate boundary by gaining admission to Olympus. IV A B THE FUNCTIONS OF GREEK MYTHOLOGY Like most other mythological traditions, Greek myths served several purposes. First, Greek myths explained the world. Second, they acted as a means of exploration. Third, they provided authority and legitimacy. Finally, they provided entertainment. Explanation Greek myths lent structure and order to the world and explained how the current state of things had originated. Hesiods Theogony narrated the education of the present order of the universe by relating it to Chaos, the origin of all things.By a complex process of violence, struggle, and sexual attraction, the regime led by Zeus had eventually taken over. Another poem by Hesiod, Works and Days, explained why the world is full of trouble. According to the poem the first woman, P andora, opened a jounce whose lid she had been forbidden to lift. As a result of her disobedience all the diseases and miseries previously confined in the jar escaped into the world. Such a myth also makes a statement about relationships between the sexes in Hesiods own world.Scholars assume that he self-possessed the poem for a largely male audience that was receptive to a tale that put women at the root of all evil. One of the commonest types of explanation given in myths relates to ritual. Myths helped worshipers make sense of a religious practice by relation back how the practice originated. A prime example is sacrifice, a ritual that involved killing a domesticated animal as an offering to the gods. The ceremony culminated in the butchering, cooking, and sharing of the meat of the victim. Hesiod recounts the myth associated with this rite.According to this myth, the tricky Titan Prometheus tried to outwit Zeus by offering him a cunningly devised choice of meals. Zeus could h ave either an apparently unappetizing discan ox paunch, which had tasty meat concealed withinor a seemingly delicious one, gleaming fat on the outside, which had nothing but bones hidden beneath. Zeus chose the second dish, and ever since human beings have kept the tastiest part of every sacrifice for themselves, leaving the gods nothing but the savor of the rising smoke. Exploration Myths charted paths through difficult territory, examining contradictions and ambiguities.For instance, Homers Iliad explores the consequences during the Trojan War of the Greek leader Agamemnons decision to strip the warrior Achilles of his allotted prize, a female slave. Achilles feels that Agamemnon has assailed his honor or worth but wonders how far he should go in reaction. Is he right to eliminate to fight, if that means the destruction of the Greek army? Is he justified in rejecting Agamemnons offer of compensation? One of this poems themes explores the limits of honor. Greek Mythology The dra matic genre of tragedy provides the clearest example of mythical exploration (see see Greek Literature Drama and Dramatic Arts).The great Athenian playwrights of the fifth century BC Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripideswrote tragedies that explored social questions by placing them, in extreme and blown-up form, in a mythical context. Sophocless tragic play Antigone concerns just such an extreme situation. Two brothers have killed each other in battle Eteocles defending his homeland, and Polynices attacking it. Their sister Antigone, in defiance of an edict by the citys ruler, attempts to bury her ostensibly traitorous brother Polynices. Sophocles raises several moral issues.Is Antigone justified in seeking to bury her brother? Which should prevail, a religious obligation to tend and bury a corpse, or a citys well-being? The answers to these moral issues are far from clear-cut, as we might expect from a work whose subtlety and prudence have so often been admired. C D V A Legitimatio n Myths also had the function of legitimation. A claim, an action, or a relationship acquired extra authority if it had a precedent in myth. Aristocratic Greek families liked to trace their ancestry back to the heroes or gods of mythology.The Greek poet Pindar, who wrote in the early 5th century BC, offers ample evidence for this preference. In his songs Pindar praised the exploits of current victors in the Olympian Games by linking them with the deeds of their mythical ancestors. In addition, two Greek city-states could cement bonds between them by showing that they had an alliance in the mythological past. Entertainment Finally, myth telling was a source of amusement and entertainment. Homers epics contain several descriptions of audiences held spellbound by the songs of bards (poets), and recitations of Homers poems also captivated audiences.Public performances of tragic drama were also hugely popular, regularly drawing some 15,000 spectators. ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK MY THOLOGY Our familiarity of Greek mythology begins with the epic poems attributed to Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which date from about the 8th century BC even though the stories they relate probably have their origins in events that occurred several centuries earlier. Scholars, however, know that the origins of Greek mythology reach even farther back than that. Origins of Greek MythologyLinguists (people who study languages) have concluded that some names of Greek deities, including Zeus, can be traced back to gods worshiped by speakers of Proto-Indo-European, the common ancestor of the Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit languages. But it would be misleading to regard the people who may have spoken this language as originators of Greek mythology because many other elements contributed. Greek Mythology Archaeologists have shown that many of the places where mythical events presumably took place correspond to sites that had historical importance during the Mycenaean period of Greek hist ory (second half of the 2nd millennium BC).Scholars thus consider it likely that the Mycenaeans made a major contribution to the development of the stories, even if this contribution is hard to demonstrate in detail. Some scholars have argued that the Minoan civilization of Crete also had a formative influence on Greek myths. The myth of the Minotaur confined in a labyrinth in the palace of King Minos, for example, might be a memory of historical bull-worship in the labyrinthine palace at Knossos on Crete. However, there is s electric arc evidence that Cretan religion survived in Greece. Nor have any ancient inscriptions corroborate that Minos ever existed outside of myth.Scholars can demonstrate influence on Greek mythology from the nerve East much more reliably than influence from Crete. Greek mythology owed much to cultures in Mesopotamia and Anatolia, especially in the realm of cosmogony (origin of the universe) and theogony (origin of the gods). To take one example, a clear parallel exists in an early tenderness Eastern myth for Greek poet Hesiods story about the expurgation of Uranus by his son Cronus and the subsequent overthrow of Cronus by his son Zeus. The Middle Eastern myth tells of the sky god Anu who was castrated by Kumarbi, father of the gods.The weather and storm god Teshub, in turn, displaced Anu. Scholars continue to bring to light more and more similarities between Greek and Middle Eastern mythologies. B Development of Greek Mythology Our knowledge of Greek myths comes from a mixture of written texts, sculpture, and decorated pottery. Scholars have reconstructed stories that circulated orally by inference and guesswork. Homers epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, stand at the beginning of Greek literary tradition (see Greek literature), even though they almost certainly depended on a lengthy previous tradition of oral poetry.The Iliad is set during the Trojan War it focuses on the consequences of a quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, two of the leading Greek warriors. The Odyssey is about the aftermath of the Trojan War, when the Greek hero Odysseus at finally returns to his home on the island of Ithaca following years of wandering in wild and magical lands. The Trojan War later provided subject matter for many tragic dramas and for imagery on countless painted vases. Hesiods Theogony, composed in the 8th century BC at about the same time as the Homeric epics, gave an authoritative account of how things began.The creation of the world, expound by Hesiod in terms of passions and crimes of the gods, is a theme that later Greek philosophers such as Empedocles and Plato developed but took in new directions. This club serves as a reminder that mythology was not a separate reflection of Greek culture, but one that interacted with many other fields of experience, particularly the writing of history. For example, in the 5th century BC Greek historian Herodotus employed numerous themes and story patterns from Greek e pics and tragedies in writing his historical account of the war between Greeks and Persians (see Persian Wars).Although the authority of Homer and Hesiod remained dominant, the poetic retelling of myths continued throughout antiquity. Myths were constantly remade in the light of new social and political circumstances. The Hellenistic period of Greek history (4th century to initiatory century BC) saw many new trends in the treatment of myths. One of the most important was the development of mythography, Greek Mythology the compilation and organization of myths on the basis of particular themes (for example, myths about metamorphosis).Such organization corresponded to a concupiscence of newly established Hellenistic rulers to lend legitimacy to their regimes by claiming that they continued a cultural tradition reaching back into a great past. Artists, too, portrayed myths. Statues of gods stood inside Greek temples, and relief sculptures of scenes from mythology adorned pediments and friezes on the outside of these temples (see Greek Art and Architecture). Among the best-known examples are the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon in Athens. These reliefs embroil depictions of combat between centaurs and Lapiths.Other visual representations of mythology were more modest in size and scope. The best evidence for the use of mythology in Greek icon comes from painted ceramic vases. The Greeks used these vases in a variety of contexts, from cookery to funerary ritual to athletic games. (Vases filled with oil were awarded as prizes in games. ) In most cases scholars can securely identify the imagery on Greek vases as mythological, but sometimes they have no way of telling whether the artist intended an allusion to mythology because myth became fused with everyday life.For example, does a representation of a woman weaving signify Penelope, wife of Odysseus who spent her days at a loom, or does it portray someone meshed in an everyday activity? The Greeks retold myths orally, as well as preserving them in literary and artistic works. The Greeks transmitted to children tales of monsters and myths of gods and heroes. Old men gathered to veer tales in leschai (clubs or conversation places). Storytelling, whether in writing, art, or speech, was at the heart of Greek civilization. VI A THE LEGACY OF GR.

Negotiation and Culture: Case Study

cultivation and Negotiations wherefore do Nipp unmatchablese negotiants be bear away in in the musical modality they do? How does finis rubric negotiating demeanour and exposecomes? MASTER THESIS Authors name Patrycja J. Krause disciplineers number 258891 Academic advisor Soren O. Hilligsoe Faculty of English Aarhus condition of Business May 2006 I would like to thank my Mom, Barbara, for her catching, encour clippingment and incessant support, as s hygienic(p) as my advisor, Soren O. Hilligsoe, for his academic sponsor, advice and faith in me retentiveness my deadline Patrycja J.Krause Aarhus, May 2006 In loving memory of my Dad, Wladyslaw, for filming me the earthly concern this nonp argonil is for you. 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 7. 8. runner appearance METHOD WHY JAPAN? DEFINITION OF CULTURE AND VALUES HOFSTEDES VALUE DIMENSIONS POWER DISTANCE UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE COLLECTIVISM VERSUS sole(prenominal)ity FEMININITY VERSUS MASCULINI TY LONG-TERM VERSUS SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES ON HOFSTEDE EDWARD HALL CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 4 6 7 9 11 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 19 20 21 23 25 26 28 30 40 43 47 59 61 64 65 . 1 CONFUCIANISM 8. 2 IE 8. 3 THE WA-CONCEPT 8. 4 isolation 8. 5 UNIQUENESS 8. 6 WESTERN INFLUENCE 9. 9. 1 10. 11. 12. 13. lacquerese NEGOTIATOR THE NANIWABUSHI STRATEGY BRETT &038 USUNIER CASE STUDIES CONCLUSION SUMMARY REFERENCES APPENDIX 3 1. Introduction This reputation wants to provide a burnish-establish expla flock, examination and analysis as to why lacquerese negotiators be hand over in the manner they do in dialog, as well as how refining affects duologues and their asidecome.The c every shopping centre is, collectable to the man senescement on ethnical differences, solely p execrableing with internationalist negotiations. This topic is tapering on the ethnic tantrum of the negotiation, which is only superstar piece of a larger puzzle, cool saturnine it is a crucial and decisive piece. It is now wide accepted that stopping point hence has an affect on negotiation and its outcome, which reflects a minded(p) gardening and the key observes and persuasions that be central and unsounded in a shade.The brotherlyization flock be defined as macrocosm twain manner, a mess grow organisation and a dialogue style, and at that go down is a link in the midst of the dominant gentlemans gentleman muckle pre direct in a retainn subtlety (japan), and the negotiating style that appears to be characteristic of that finale. This piece of music is non to depict a stereotypical trope of a Nipp sensationse negotiator, but merely to visual aspect that finishing and so does go the behavior, negotiations and their outcome. It should also be kept in headspring that (a) the negotiation is a universal process, and (b) there be a number of stage laytingual detailors that too have an impact on the cultures impact on the negotiation e. . the temperament of the opposite party ( penis of an in- classify or an out-radical), and the individual difference, although a member of a collectivised culture t shoemakers lasts to destroy his personality and individuality in sanctify to main(prenominal)tain sort concurrence. This musical com countersink is to focus on a Nipp singlese negotiator, who is dominated by his ethnic set, and his interaction (in a negotiation) with a member of an out- crowd (foreigners and tidy sum that do non have a keen-sighted term consanguinity with the lacquerese negotiator), and a member of the in-group (fel depleted japanese with realised long-term relation send outs).Several studies and surveys (e. g. Brett and Usunier) have sh harbor in that culture does affect the negotiation process and the humiliatedest agreement or outcome of the negotiations. Nevertheless(prenominal), while there have been a number of studies that have explored the behavior of negotiators from con trastive cultures, only very a fewer(prenominal) have bartert with the underlying reasons why mickle from a given culture behave the way they do.Addition tot individu some(prenominal)yyy, closely theorists and scholars have relied on the honor ratios index, make up the differences amidst cultures, developed by Hofstede amongst 1968 and 1973. Hofstedes research has doubtlessly helped people understand modeler(a) cultures, but there is also a subscribe to understand the underlying reasons why people from a given culture behave the way they do the so-called mental frames that argon shaping the behavior of Nipponese negotiators. 4Otherwise, negotiators tend to create their own rendition of the behavior of the tierer(a)wisewise party, which without the necessarily heathen have it awayledge whitethorn trey to prejudices and in the long run lack of trust (Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 125-160). For instance, trust in laissez-faire(a) societies is lay out on the fa ct that a promise that leave al nonpargonil be utilize on a specific time or day, whereas trust in collectivistic societies is based on emotions and relationships as well as on sacrifice.The new(prenominal) party may thence think the Nipponese negotiator do not want to piss an agreement within a week because they ar vexed and want to sabotage the negotiation or untrustworthy, sort of than the Nipponese argon relationship oriented alternatively than line oriented. They and so want to establish a relationship before they bring in an agreement and need much(prenominal) time in mark to r severally an agreement because it is based on group consensus. The paper starts by vainglorious a definition and an analysis of culture and set in planetary in order to delimit and define the ethnical frame impart that is the crapper of this paper.The culture and set of Japan are then to be set forth and discussed in order to show which ethnic factors and dimensions in Japan re trieve and influence the Japanese negotiator, as well as serving as a an introductory go to Japanese culture and society hopefully, the orient will present two utilitarian and inte proportioning hunch overledge to all those interested in cross-cultural negotiations and intercultural communication. Two frameworks are presented and use in order to get to deeper behavior knowledge of culture Hofstedes heathenish Dimension and mansion houses Silent Language and Beyond Culture.Next, the paper discusses and analyzes Japanese negotiating styles and techniques 1 , and how they are influenced by the Japanese culture and cultural set. For this purpose, different aspects of verbal and non-verbal communication are to be discussed as well, and the paper is to analyze the meaning of these aspects in the circumstance of negotiations. Finally, the paper is to take a tint at two real sp nearliness cases involving Japanese negotiators in order to illustrate behavior patterns and negotiati on styles and techniques of Japanese negotiators.The author of this paper would compete that in an increasingly interdependent world, the ability to negotiate successfully is an central skill, and understanding the mindset and the behavior of the Japanese negotiator is ingrained and quarteral for successful negotiations. 1 Mainly centre on the phallic negotiator, being the dominant player during negotiations in Japan. 5 Being alert of the reasons why the Japanese negotiator behaves and communicates they way he does, one may be less surprised or shocked by Japanese behavior, and may be better at foc use on, and handling, the negotiation itself.Knowledge of culture and cultural treasures of the other party works as an doubt scheme in negotiations, and helps building trust in stead of tarnishing it with prejudices, which ultimately leads to a dead lock or flush break shoot downs. 2. order The research concerning this paper was mainly carried out in the fashion model of a desktop use up method all the data were carefully store mainly from secondary sources, much(prenominal) as, studies, surveys, as well as statistics and articles.The paper is culture-based, and the chosen data depict this approach all the scholars referred quoted and referred to are specializing in culture, intercultural communication, as well negotiating. In order to give a ordinary overview of the Japanese culture as well as to determine what eccentric person of values are predominant in Japan, the paper refers to and applies Hofstedes vanadium value dimensions index masculinity/femininity, amicableism/ individualization, suspicion avoidance, long-term versus short orientation and motive quad.Additionally, the paper is also to refer to Halls system on the difference amidst senior high and low consideration and cultures, and the exemplification of Chronemics, in order to identify the Japanese culture and how these differences and concepts influence a negotiatio n. Also, several historical concepts (e. g. the ie-concept, geographical isolation, Hesperian influence, etc. and Confucianism, which is one of the cultural dimensions that have influenced the Japanese worldview, are to be defined and discussed in order to explain why the Japanese negotiator behaves in the manner he does, and how the historical fifty-fiftyts and Confucianism affect the culture and the behavior in Japan. Hofstedes work has been criticized over the eld for being incomplete, static and too narrow. The paper is and then to discuss the critical perspectives on Hofstede in order to show that the author has been a state of ware of the possible disadvantages, when using Hofstedes five value dimensions index. Additionally, Brett and Usunier are also discussed in the paper when dealing with the connection and interaction surrounded by culture and negotiation how does culture affect negotiations. Both Brett and Usunier argue that in order to r for each one an agreement , the negotiators need to be aware of each others culture and cultural values, as well as understand the reasons for the way the other part behaves during negotiations. Finally, two real life case studies have been analyzed in order to depict the culture-based theory described and discussed in this paper.The reason for using case studies was to give a to a greater extent holistic portrayal of a Japanese negotiator, while analyzing the circumscribe by apprehendking patterns and themes in the data while referring them to the culture-based theory (e. g. culture and values and how they influence ones behavior and negotiating style) in this paper. Additionally, using case study is the best way to obtain data for analysis when one is not able to make actual domain studies by observing Japanese negotiators in action. Both case studies depict the Japanese negotiators interacting and negotiating with members of an out-group, the Ameri move buoys.This is cod to the fact that the author o f this paper would argue that when observing two different cultures one observes reactions that may not be present when both parties had the same cultural impaleground, which would ultimately result in a smoother negotiation. Additionally, this paper deals with international negotiations and the magnificence of kno advanceg and understanding the other partys culture and cultural values. The case studies are thencely used to highlight the focus of the paper why Japanese negotiators behave in the manner they do in a negotiation, as well as how culture affects negotiations and their outcome. . Why Japan? The author of this paper has chosen to focus on Japan and the cultural values and behavior of a Japanese negotiator due to the following factor Japans consumer foodstuff. In order to know how attractive Japan is as a subscriber line associate, and consequently how all important(p) it is to know the Japanese culture and negation behavior in order to win the market and succeed i n the rustic, a brief description of the Japanese consumer market will now be given its size, its consumers and its products.Japan is a well-nigh populated and highly urbanized field with one of the most properly economies in the world, currently amongst the top trine economies in the world, although windlessness rebounding from the soften of the countrys economy back in 1991. 7 consort to the Statistical enchiridion of Japan, consumption expenditures increased by approximately 0. 5 per centum in real terms due to such factors as the indication of an economic recovery and improvement in consumer sentiment (Statistical vade mecum of Japan, 2005 2 158).Statistical Handbook of Japan states As of May 2005, the excellent achievement of the corporate sector is continuing, and overall dividing line is recovering in stages. Recovery of purpose is lagging slightly. However, the un role rate, which was 5. 4 percent in 2002, recovered to 4. 4 percent in May 2005. As seen in thi s state of affairs, there is rough improvement, although harshness tranquilize covers. The growth of consumer spending, which slowed among the end of 2004 and early 2005, is present signs of a resurgence (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005 33 3 ).Due to its geographical nature, Japan cannot supply all its needs for raw material for energy and fuel, metallic element products, and pabulums from indigenous resources, and is hence dependent on overseas supplies. In 1996 Japan had an overall deficit in food of more(prenominal) or less 30 % in 2003 it was approximately 40 %. concord to Statistical Handbook of Japan, the present food self-sufficiency rate of Japan is the lowest among major industrialized countries, so Japan has thus become the worlds largest food importing nation (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005 69 4 ).This makes Japan an attractive market with its 127 million consumers, where women are a majority and retired people outnumber the youngest age strata, and a re thus the most significant consumer group (Reischauer, 1995 25). Additionally, the Japanese are well ameliorate and signs have a fairly disposable income, in which the majority of it is washed-out on food. fit to the 2004 Family Income and Expenditure Survey, monthly consumption expenditure averaged ? 304,203per household with two or more family members excluding single-member households (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005 158 5 ). auxiliary 1 Household 3 Appendix 2 Economy 4 Appendix 3 Agriculture 5 Appendix 1 Household 8 Japan is the worlds largest net importer of agriculture and food products (in 2003 alone, the country has imported over 60 % of its food supplies), measureing to US$ 40 to 50 billion annually. Thus, the Japanese food market is motiveful but demanding (Agri-Food plain Profile Japan, 2003 1 6 ). Needless to say, it is a relatively difficult task to target a foreign, and instead remote, market as it may require extra resources and special cultural kno wledge.Therefore, it is valuable to study the values and the culture of Japan before entering the countrys market in order to promote and sell a product. 4. Definition of Culture and determine This chapter is to describe and define culture and values in universal in order to delimit and define the cultural framework that is the bunghole of this paper. At start-off glace, the kind-hearted race behaves more or less alike we smile, laugh and cry. We lecturing, gesticulate, and perform actions. Nevertheless, our behavior is influenced by our cultures with the norms and rules vivacious in our society.Our cultures also affect our communication through the individual characteristics we learn when we are complaisantized into our culture. In short, our culture provides us with a system of knowledge that generally allows us to know how to communicate with other members of our culture and how to interpret their behavior. Culture can thus be defined as an underlying framework that gu ides an individuals perceptions of observed events and personal interaction, and thus chairly influences what people will do and what they can do. In short, keen and using culture and its m both dimensions is a infixed know negotiating with foreigners.Culture includes all learned behavior and values that are catching through share experience to an individual in a society. According to Sir Edward Taylor, a unequivocal definition of culture is as follows Culture is that complex square which includes knowledge, belief, art, lessons, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by (individuals as members) of society. (Taylor, 1871 1). Culture is thus every involvement that people have ( tendencys), think (ideas, values, attitudes, beliefs), and do (behavior) as members of a particular society.Culture is made up of material objects, ideas, values and attitudes, and behavior patterns (Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 14-19, Yokochi &038 Hall, 2001 193). 6 Appendix 4 9 Add itionally, gibe to Hall, a culture must have the following three characteristics 1. It is learned people over time transmit the culture of their group from one generation to other 2. It is interrelated one part of a particular culture is deeply inter connected with another part e. g. pietism with marriage, or education and work with social status 3.It is shared the elementary concepts of a particular culture are accepted by most members of the group. In other words, culture develops through recurrent social relationships that form a pattern that is eventually adapted by members of the entire group, and transmitted to new members through the process of learning and interacting with ones environment and other members of ones culture (Hall, 1977 16). The most fundamental aspect of our culture consists of values. value are acquired in the family, during the first years of our lives, further developed and confirmed in school, and einforced in work organizations and in life within a national cultural environment. Values determine what we consider to be good and evil, beautiful and ugly, ingrained and unnatural, rational and irrational, normal and abnormal (Ghauri &038 Usunier, 2003 97-100, 137-138). Values too are a major influence and determination factor when it comes to behavior and communication during a negotiation. Values are defined by the particular culture, hence the importance of understanding the value concept and culture when negotiating with foreigners. nonpareil of the early U. S. esearches of values, Milton Rokeach, defines a value 7 as An enduring belief that one mode of postulate or end-state of existence is preferable to an opposing mode of transmit or end-state of existence. According to Rokeach values are thus both guiding principles in life, and tastings for one mode of behavior over another. Values are depicted in the general norms of a culture (what is right and wrong), and they are depicted in what we want and what we consider impo rtant for ourselves. Values are also among the very first things children learn implicitly by observing the comm ace, kyodotai in Japanese (e. . parents and people around them). 7 An attitude, on the other hand, refers to an organization of several beliefs around a specific object or situation. 10 According to the American development psychologist, Daniel Yankelovich, most important traditional values will remain firm and unceasing over time, and are thus stable and enduring through generations (de Mooij, 2004 22-26). It is thus ingrained to rally that the intercultural communication and negotiation are never far from cultural considerations (Roth, 1982 6).This assumption was mistakenly conceived from the converging technology and the spread of the English delivery that was taking place globally (de Mooij, 2004 1-18). One has to remember though that globalization is not an entirely new phenomenon. In fact, some would argue that it even dates back at least to the Marco Polos v oyages in the 1300s, and the fundamental values of the many different cultures have not changed significantly since then. People still live in the local. We define ourselves by our differences.Its called identity self, family and nation (de Mooij, 2004 16). Human behavior is learned and growing up in a culture, a person is taught values, perceptions, wants and how to behave from the family and other institutions (Lasserre &038 Schutte, 1995 49-59). For instance, in todays Japan, group harmony is still dominating the nations behavior, longevity by age is still respected, and promotion in most public and private organizations is based on the length of service, which is usually connected to the age of the individual.Reciprocity is emphasized in social relations in order to maintain a durable relationship. Values and traditions do not easily change in a society. 5. Hofstedes value dimensions This chapter is to describe and discuss the Dutch professor, Geert Hofstedes, value dimension index, which is based on the first international survey taking place in IBM in more than 50 different countries from 1968 to 1973 (Hofstede, 2001 xv), mainly focusing on Japan in order to determine what type of culture is present in Japan.According to Hofstede, the way people perceive and interpret their world varies along five dimensions, and are as follows military control office distance, uncertainty avoidance, collectivism/individualism, and masculinity/femininity. Finally, Hofstede added a fifth dimension called long-term orientation in life versus short orientation. Each of the countries in Hofstedes study has been be according to their rack up in each dimension. 11 According to Hofstede a dimension is an aspect of a culture that can be metric relative to other cultures. Additionally, Hofstede defines culture as The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another (Hofstede, 2001 9). 5. 1 Power distance Po wer distance refers to the ine tonus among people, which the population of a country considers acceptable. There is inequality in all societies, and thus there will always be some people who have more power than other. In some cultures power is concentrated among a few people at the top, who make all the decisions, whereas people at the other end simply carry out these decisions.Such cultures are associated with high power distance levels. In other cultures, on the other hand, power is widely spread and relations among people are more equal. These are low power distance cultures. (Hofstede, 1991 23) According to Hofstedes value dimensions Japan scores 55 points placing it in the middle of the index (Hofstede, 1991 26). In countries which have a high power distance employees dislike to disagree with their superiors. Superiors are seen as paternalistic, and subordinates expect to be told what to do.There is also a large emotional distance between subordinates and their superiors (Ho fstede, 1991 28). When it comes to family and school, parents will teach children to be obedient and the children will spread over their parents with respect, just as students will treat their teachers with respect. In high power distance societies inequalities among people are in general expected and desire (Hofstede, 1991 37). In Japan this inequality is especially expressed in the oya-ko concept (literally meaning parentchild), which originally refers to a leader or a work group and its members.As work and dwelling began to separate during the beginning of modern result of Japan oya and ko began to have a strictly kinship meaning with no economic aspect such as it had until the Tokugawa menstruum where the ie ( drawn-out household) was more than just a family or a kinship unit it was an economic organization in which each of its members (not always related to each other by blood or marriage) contributed towards it (Harumi, 1971 38-39). 12 5. 2 perplexity avoidance Uncert ainty avoidance describes the need or lack of need a society has towards indite or unwritten rules and how it deals with structured or unstructured situations.At the organizational level, uncertainty avoidance is related to factors such as rituals, rules, and employment stability. People in less structured cultures face the future day without experiencing unnecessarily sieve. The uncertainty associated with future events does not result in guess avoidance behavior. On the other hand, in cultures where people experience stress in dealing with future events, high uncertainty avoidance cultures, conglomerate steps are taken to cope with the impact of uncertainty e. g. long-time provision in order to minimize the anxiety associated with future events.Japan scores 92 points and is seen as a country with high uncertainty avoidance, where there are many regulations and a vigorous etiquette in order to avoid uncertainty (Hofstede, 1991 113). 5. 3 Collectivism versus individualism Acc ording to several researchers within the field of culture, individualism versus collectivism is one of the basic pattern variants that determine homophile action. It is a pattern that is visible in every day life, as well as being present in the interaction between people. Individualism indicates the degree to which people of a particular culture learn to act as individuals rather than as members of a group.It is ingrained to remember that all people and cultures posses both individual and collective traits, but at the same time one of these traits is always more dominant or more visible than the other (Samovar &038 Porter, 2004 59). A typical collectivistic culture distinguishes between in-groups (relatives, clans, and organizations), and out-groups (the rest of ones network). Ones in-groups can be defined as ones extended family like the one embed in the Japanese society throughout the history also known as ie.People from individualistic cultures are self-centered, and tactua l sensation relatively little need for dependency on others. They seek the fulfilment of their own goals over the goals over the groups. Additionally, people from individualistic cultures are competitive, and show little loyalty to the organizations for which they work. 13 People from collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, have a group mentality (with e. g. joint decision making), where they suppress and subordinate their goals for the sake of the group. They are interdependent on each other and seek mutual accommodation in order to maintain group harmony.People in a collectivistic culture expect that their in-groups will take care of them and in return they owe the in-groups a great deal of loyalty and submission (Samovar &038 Porter, 2004 61). Children who grow up in collectivistic societies are expected to show lifelong loyalty to the group (Hofstede, 1991 50-51). In short, individualism versus collectivism, deals with the degree to which one thinks in terms of I versus we either ties between individuals are loose or people are part of gummy ingroup throughout their lives (Samovar &038 Porter, 2004 61).Contrary to the stereotype, Japan actually ranks in the middle of this dimension, with 46 points but is still defined as being a collectivistic culture (Hofstede, 1991 67). An interesting theory stated by Kumon Shumpei, a Japanese anthropologist, characterizes Japanese as contextualists rather than collectivists, as is the case in both Hofstede and Halls studies. A contextualist retains a personal identity, which the collectivist believably loses, but this personal identity is virtually inseparable from the contextual identity.Thus, the individual changes, depending on the context he is in or the people he is with. One of the arguments Kumon makes to support the theory is that most Japanese endure to in-groups in order to reach a self-realization. But one could argue that even in these self-realization in-groups the members strive to maintain harmo ny and act for the realize of the group, making them predominantly collectivistic (Hendry, 1998 22-39). 5. 4 Femininity versus masculinity One of the main differentiations between mannish and feminine cultures is how gender roles are distributed in cultures.Thus masculine cultures create clearly distinct gender roles men are supposed to be self-confident, tough and concerned with the material aspect of life, whereas women are expected to be modest, tender and dealing with the quality of life. Thus according to Hofstede Japan is a highly masculine culture (Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 77), whereas in masculine countries both people are taught to be ambitious and competitive. It should be mentioned though that females ambitions are some quantify directed towards the achievements of their brothers and later in life their husbands and sons.According to Hofstedes index, Japan is one of the more masculine countries, scoring 95 be as number one (Hofstede, 1991 96). 14 5. 5 long-term versu s short-term orientation Michael Harris Bond originally found the fifth dimension in the answers of student samples from 23 countries in 1985 in Hong Kong, and later it was incorporated by Hofstede in his value dimensions index. The reason why this dimension was not found in the original IBM data was due to the fact that the IBM questionnaires were composed from the minds and values of westerlyers whereas the fifth dimension was composed from the minds and values of Easterners.The fifth dimension, nevertheless, is present crossways all 23 cultures taking part in the survey (Hofstede, 2001 71-73). Long-term orientation, also known as Confucian Dynamism, is composed of the following values being determinate or firm, prudent, arranging relationships by status as well valuing interpersonal relationships, as well as having a common sense of shame, saving ones face, having a great deal of respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favors and gifts.Japan ranks as number 4 o n the Long-term Orientation exponent Values, with 80 points (Hofstede, 2001 351356). 6. Critical perspectives on Hofstede There has been a great deal of critique of Hofstedes value dimensions when dealing with culture analyses, which this paper will shortly discuss simply to show that the author of this paper is indeed aware of the advantages as well as disadvantages when using Hofstedes value dimensions in order to analyze a specific culture.One of the most fresh Danish critical analyses was performed by Susan Baca at the Aalborg University where it is being argued that Hofstedes IBM-based resonance which is supposed to depict characteristic traits visible in cultures cannot be used simply due to the fact that IBMemployees from a specific culture cannot be representative for the culture in question as a whole (Baca, 1999 11). One can argue that since Hofstede published his IBM-based rapport several other culture-analytics (e. . Triandis, Brislin and Bond) have made further analy ses, which do not exactly controvert Hofstedes value dimensions. These analyses both support Hofstedes dimensions, as well as having reached the same conclusions. One can also add that since the amount of IBM-employees amounted to hundreds of thousands it is only logical to conclude that one did find enough traits, which can be viewed as characteristic for the cultures in question. 15Another aspect of Hofstedes survey-based value dimensions, which is being criticized is the fact that his model is static, and can ultimately not be used because surely the cultures in question studied by Hofstede must have changed over the time since he performed the survey from 1968 to 1973. This is one of the reasons why the paper is looking at the cultural and historical influence on Japanese behavior over time in order to see if Hofstedes value dimensions are still valid in the Japanese culture that this paper is dealing with.Susan Baca is also criticizing Hofstede for actually separating a given culture into several, isolated dimensions, strongly supported by Turner and Trompenaars. For instance, Hofstede is portrait the American culture as highly individualistic, but does not describe the interaction people have with each other among the different in-groups and if one can categorize this interaction as being highly individualistic as well or not (Baca, 1999 15). To this, the author of this paper can only say, using Hofstedes own words that this papers main task is to study cultures, and not individuals. (Hofstede, 2001 15).Additionally, in order to back up Hofstedes theory, this paper is also to refer to Halls theory on Chronemics as well as a more general cultural analysis of the Japanese culture. 7. Edward Hall Another cultural framework used in this paper in order to gain deeper behavior knowledge of the Japanese culture, is Halls concept of Chronemics as well as his theory on low-context and high-context cultures. According to the American sociologist, Edward Hall, the world is divided into monochronic and polychronic culture, also known as the concept of Chronemics. It is a communicatory behavior that s fliers to how people use time to communicate.Lateness, for example, can communicate messages of power (waiting in the doctors office), attraction (arriving early for the first date), or identity (being fashionably late). Chronemics, like all other nonverbal behavior is culturally based. Different cultures have different rules governing the use and meaning of time. Halls bill between monochronic and polychronic cultures highlight the different ends of the cultural spectrums of how cultures view time. A cultures conception of time can thus be examined from Halls monochronic and polychronic classifications. 16Monochronic cultures see time as a measurable, quantifiable entity, which is linear. Thus, being punctual, scheduling, planning tasks to match time frames are valued behaviors. In the monochronic culture time becomes a concrete and segment ed reality where only one thing can be done at a time without interruptions. Additionally, in negotiations, monochronic peoples main focus is on goals, tasks and results, rather than relationships. Polychronic cultures, on the other hand, tend to view time as nonlinear most as a general guideline, which has no substance or structure. There is thus a circular or cyclical quality to time.Punctuality and scheduling is done but rarely found in monochronic cultures. Additionally, people from polychronic cultures are able to do many things at one time, and do not mind interruptions. Because time is not linear or segmented, duplicate specific activities with specific time frames is not done. Times and activities are fluid. Finally, in negotiations, polychronic peoples main focus is on relationships and people. Japan belongs to the polychronic cultures. In a negotiation context, the Japanese want to get to know their business counterparts, and they feel that the best way to do so is by agreeable in long conversations with them.This reflects the fact that the Japanese culture is long-term relationship oriented. Negotiators from polychronic cultures are thus relationship-focused. Monochronic and polychronic time orientations tend to produce two other significant cultural phenomena the difference between high and low context cultures, which refers to the fact that when people communicate, they take for granted how much the listener knows nigh the subject under discussion. Negotiators from monochronic cultures are thus deal-focused. Although Edward T.Hall classified Japan as a polychronic culture, Gesteland argues that the Japanese business people expect strict promptness in meetings and close tenderness to schedule. Punctuality in Japan aptitude be ruled by the high level of uncertainty avoidance and the maintenance of group harmony, which is essential for the Japanese culture. Hall also discusses and distinguishes between high-context and low-context cultures. H e views meaning and context as being interconnected. The difference between high and low context cultures depends on how much meaning is found in the context versus in the code. 17One can think of code as the message, and of context as setting or circumstance, including the people, in which the message appeared. In low-context communication, the listener knows very little and must be informed roughly every detail. In high-context communication, on the other hand, the listener is already contexted, and does not need to be given much background study. According to Hall, low-context cultures, such as the American culture, tend to place more meaning in the language code and very little meaning in the context. colloquy tends thus to be specific, explicit, and analytical.In analyzing messages, low-context cultures tend to focus on what was tell and give literal meaning to each word. Low-context cultures tend to use a direct verbal-expression style in which the situation context is not emphasized, important information is usually carried in explicit verbal messages, people tend to straight express their opinions and intend to persuade others to accept their viewpoints, and self-expression, verbal fluency, and eloquent deliverance are valued. In high-context cultures, on the other hand, such as the Japanese culture, meaning is embedded more in the context rather than the code.In this case, what was said cannot be understood by the words alone one has to look at who said it, when they said it, where they said it, how they said it, the circumstances in which they said it, and to whom they said it. Each variable will thus help define the meaning of what was said. Hall states People raised in high-context systems expect more from others than do the participants in lowcontext systems. When talking about something that they have on their minds, a high-context individual will expect his interlo neglector to know whats bothering him, so that he doesnt have to be speci fic.The result is that he will talk around and around the point, in effect putting all the pieces in place except the crucial one (Hall 1977, p. 98). This is also the case with the behavior of a Japanese negotiator he expects the other party to know exactly what he wants to obtain from the negotiation, and what type of a deal he is looking for. 18 In short, the difference between high and low context cultures depends on how much meaning is found in the context versus in the code, or, in high-context exchanges, much of the burden of meaning appears to fall on the listener.In low context cultures, the burden appears to fall on the speaker to accurately and thoroughly convey the meaning in her spoken or written message. Conclusively, according to Hall, Japan and the Japanese negotiator belongs to the polychronic culture type. Thus, in a negotiation context, the Japanese want to get to know their business counterparts by engaging in long conversations with them. This again reflects the fact that the Japanese culture is long-term relationship oriented. Additionally, Japan is a high-context culture, where meaning is embedded more in the context rather than the code.Japanese negotiators expect thus more from the other party and when something is bothering them, they tend to express this indirectly (for instance by using silence) (Cohen, 1997 159-160, Rowland, 1993 68-69). Finally, although Edward T. Hall classified Japan as a polychronic culture, Gesteland argues that the Japanese business people expect strict punctuality in meetings and close adherence to schedule. Punctuality in Japan might be ruled by the high level of uncertainty avoidance and the maintenance of group harmony, which is essential for the Japanese culture (Hall, 1973, 1977, Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 69, 179-180). 8.Cultural Dimensions This chapter is to discuss and analyze which values and cultural dimensions that are present and dominant in Japan in order to understand the behavior of a Japanese n egotiator Confucianism Ie The WA-concept Isolation geographical &038 political Uniqueness western influence 19 8. 1 Confucianism The cultural perspective has for some time provided the dominant paradigm in proportional studies management, organization and cross-cultural negotiations. Even before Hofstedes survey on cultural values, international studies of organization generally regarded culture as the strike explanatory factor for cross-cultural differences.One of the most important influences on Japanese everyday life, culture and behavior was, and still is, Confucianism, which entered Japan via Korea in the fifth Century. Japanese culture and behavior reflect the values of collectivism and harmony, and are highly inspired and influenced by Confucianism. Confucius (Kongzi, 551-479 BC) writing around the time of Socrates but a while before Jesus Christ, based his ideas on implicit respect for tradition, on a strict hierarchy of primary relationships between family-members, and then again between the people and their rulers.His philosophy was intended to guide peoples everyday life, to regulate social behavior, and it established a mode of thought and habit that has persisted and that blended well with other belief systems that were and still are present in Japan, such as Buddhism and Shinto. The central concepts of the Confucian ethic were summarized in the Three Cardinal Relationships ruler guides subject, scram guides son, and husband guides wife), five everlasting virtues (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity, and the doctrine of the mean (harmony). In this teaching, focus is on the agreement of the inferior to the superior.The assumption is that society needs a hierarchical order in which every individual has his or her own place, and the peace and harmony prevail if everyone follows the proper manner of conduct. These concepts are the fundament of the Japanese society to this very day. Also, the Confucian teachings emphasi zed uprightness, righteousness, loyalty, sincerity, reciprocity, and benevolence as personal virtues. The principle of filial piousness was especially useful during the Tokugawa period when family was the social and economic unity of society. Occupation and property belonged to the family.Continuation of the family line was thus a primary concern because it was a necessity for keeping ones position and income. Individuals often sacrificed their happiness to ensure survival of the family. After Japan was centralize under the Meiji government in the nineteenth century, the concept of filial piety was expended to embrace the idea of loyalty to the emperor, who was regarded as the father of the nation. 20 The Confucian concepts of hierarchy in human society and respect for age were useful in the feudal society, also during the Tokugawa period, which was structured hierarchically.Its stability rested on individuals dutiful fulfillment of obligations to their superiors and maintenance o f proper conduct in daily life. The general rules of conduct were respect for seniors in social rank and age, and acknowledgement of the superiority of man over women. Additionally, Confucius laid down that Ren or benevolence was the supreme virtue the follower can attain. As a strictly natural and humanistic love, it was based upon spontaneous feelings obliging through education. In order to attain Ren, you have to practice Li, which represents social norms.The latter can be interpreted as rituals, rites or proprieties and includes all moral codes and social institutions. As Li is a term for moral codes and social institutions, one could assume that the practice of Li is to enforce social conformity at the comprise of the individual. However, an individual personality is not an entity cut off from the group. According to Confucius, in order to establish one self, one has to establish others. There is interdependence between the individual and the group that is essential in order to create harmony.The strong Japanese cultural preference for basing business transactions upon the quality of inter-personal relationships and for settling disputes through mediation rather than relying upon contracts and legal process can be seen to stem from this philosophy (McGreal 1995). According to Confucius, all societies deal with survival, production, distribution, and consumption yet they all develop different systems in order to survive and obtain their ultimate goals and aims. Things have changed in the Japanese society when it comes to material and technological development.As far as human relations and communication with foreigners are concerned, things have not changed. One can say that Japan has modernized, but it has not westernized just yet (Kodansha, 1994 202-218, McGreal, 1995 5-7, Cohen, 1997 159-160, Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 80, 119, 217, Samovar &038 Porter, 2004 213-217). 8. 2 Ie Japan is a Shinto, Confucianism and Zen Buddhism inspired culture, Confucianis m being the fundament, where everything and everyone is connected and relies on each other in order to exist. 21The concept of ie, or extended household/kinship unit in traditional Japan, thus take overing more than close family members all active under the same roof and under the authority of one male, describes this way of thinking, or the Japanese values, the best. The main focus in ie is on in-group bene adapts, harmony and family where interdependence and togetherness is essential (de Mooij, 2004 100-1003, Harumi, 1971). Although the ie-concept does not formally exist in the original form 8 , as it did during the pre-modern or feudal Japan, one still finds it in the underlying values of the Japanese people.The ie-concept 9 became dominant and visible during the Edo or Tokugawa period (16001867), where a strict political regime was introduced by the Tokugawa family, who, as well as retaining large estates, also took control of major cities, ports and mines in Japan. Under Tokugawa rule, Japan entered a period of national seclusion (sakoku), where the Japanese were forbidden to tour to or return from overseas or to trade abroad. Only the Dutch, Chinese and Koreans were allowed to remain and they were placed under strict supervision.Additionally, to ensure political security, the daimyo were necessary to make ceremonial visits to Edo every other year, and their wives and children were kept in permanent residence in Edo as virtual hostages of the government. The cost of this constant movement and the family ties in Edo made it difficult for the daimyo to remain anything but loyal. At the lower end of society, farmers were subject to a strong system of rules, which dictated their food, clothing and housing. Social mobility from one class to another was blocked social standing was determined by birth.Additionally, women in the Japanese society were fully submitted men 10 . Women were submitted either their fathers, husbands or in the case of widows, t heir eldest son with no legal rights. Ie authority extended household thus containing more than close family members all living under the same roof and under the authority of one male. Ie was formally abolished in 1947 with the introduction of the New Constitution, which prescribed a more Democratic family system based on equal rights of husbands and wives. Inspired by Confucianism. 10 This submission was further supported by the Civil law of 1898, which placed women in the family under the authority of men. 8 22 The remote family structure, ie, was officially abandoned in 1947, but one can still sense its presence, in a revised form, in todays Japanese society both in the corporal system where the party boss executive is the male, who has been working for the company longest time, and in family life where women take care of children and men provide for the well-being of the amily. Nevertheless, the rigid emphasis of these times on submitting unquestionably to rules of obedi ence and loyalty has lasted to the present day. Today the ie-concept is still visible in that Japanese businessmen do not treasure their business associates at home. There is both a practical and a social reason for not doing so. First of all, the typical Japanese home is small and a larger group of people simply cannot fit in. Second, Home for the Japanese is very private.It is generally only open to relatives, long-time friends, childrens friends and their own family the so-called in-group. Additionally, salary has for many years been linked to the age of employees until they entered their forties to fifties age a male worker had thus a lifetime-employment guarantee until they reached their fifties. However, this system does not operate in small-business sector. The seniority system is one of the special characteristics of Japanese employment practices.Since the 1990s, however, there has been a substantial increase in the number of companies, who are reconsidering this type of employment system, and progress is being made in introducing a new requital system based on employees performance rather than their age and the amount of time they have worked for the company in question (Sugimoto, 1997 80, Kodansha, 1994 117-118, Hendry, 1998 22-39). In short, ie puts an emphasis upon continuity, succession practices, and some of the socio ghostly (e. . volunteer organizations such as environmental movement groups) chokes that still occupy an important place in Japan today (Refsing, 1990, 11-25, Bando, 1980 27-29, Hendry, 1998 22-39, Harumi, 1971 38-39, Sugimoto, 1997 80, Kodansha, 1994 117-118) 8. 3 The Wa-concept According to Wierzbicka, cultural values and behavior of a particular culture can be found in a core concept. For Japan this core concept is wa, which means harmony, unity or the desire to be one with those of your in-group.The wa-concept illustrates the concept, with several aspects (please see below), that although people have differences, it is the most convenient when people want the same thing at the deepest level. 23 This deep level of sharing underlies the desire for harmony at the interpersonal level, as well as a high level of consideration of others within ones group, and creates a unity among members of the in-group. In Japan, individuals are thus expected to act in ways that protect the unity or wa of the in-group (Wierzbicka, 1992).The several aspects, which the Wa-concept consists of, are described and discussed below Enryo is an aspect that is encompassed in wa, illustrates the effort of avoiding explicit opinions, assessments, or other displays of personal feelings. It is thus a form of self-restraint that proscribes the brining of attention to oneself and ones personal desires in order to avoid having others think badly of one. Japan has been categorized as a high-context culture, and in a communicative context, the meaning is often implicit. The focus is thus on the listener and his or her ability to understand implicit messages.Sasshi refers thus to the ability to guess or intuit another persons meaning without that person having to express it directly. Implicit communication is essential in a collective culture where maintaining harmony and avoiding conflicts is essential. Amae refers to a form of mutual dependency, or a relationship in which one person is in a protective stance toward another (Wierzbicka, 1992). The desire for amae motivates one to belong to a group and depend on another person. Amae emphasizes thus a protective relationship and a mutual dependency between the members of the in-group.Giri refers to a type of obligation felt toward others who have done something good for the person. According to Befu, it is a moral imperative to perform ones duties toward members of ones group (Befu, 1986 162). It is also a long-term relationship and a sense that one will be forever in the other persons debt. This sense of obligation is very typical in a culture that stresses the wa-conc ept as well as in collectivist cultures, where members of the in-group are closely tied to each other. Awase refers to the ability to always be able to adjust to the situation or the circumstances.The self is thus constantly changing and moving with the situation, whereas the group is constant and needs to be maintained. Thus, maintaining wa equals being flexible in situations, and not on consistently following ones principles. 24 Kenson involves discounting ones abilities and to avoid standing out in order to maintain the status quo of a relationship. Kenson is sometimes manifested in a verbal apology, and it demonstrates a desire not to disturb the nature of the relationship, and a desire to maintain group harmony.For instance, a speaker may begin his or her speech by apologizing to the audience for his or her low status or insufficient knowledge on the topic this depicts humility. Kata refers to the constant and familiar way something is done. In Japan, there is a kata or form f or almost everything from the way one plays ball to the way one performs a tea ceremony. The Japanese thus value form over function and process over outcome an important element to remember when touch on in negotiations with the Japanese.This again refers to the uncertainty-avoidance that is present in the Japanese culture, which illustrates itself in the form of strict rules and regulation (Wierzbicka, 1992, Gudykunst &038 Kim, 2003 5354). 8. 4 Isolation Another dimension characterizing Japan is the historical separateness of Japan from the rest of the world 11 , and the strong belief in the uniqueness of the Japanese culture and society. Its distance from the Asiatic continent and from the rest of the world had a crucial influence over the formation of the Japanese society and culture.The isolation began during the Tokugawa period when the Tokugawa government was try to create relative peace and security. Instead, the government was facing stagnation, corruption and isolation . Famines and pauperism among the peasants and samurai weakened the system even further. Additionally, foreign ships (from Russia, Britain and the USA) started to examine Japans isolation with increasing insistence, and Japan realized that their defenses were outdated and ineffective. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the US Navy arrived with his famous black ships to demand the opening of Japan to trade, followed y other countries. This resulted in a stream of antigovernment feeling among the Japanese due to the fact that it failed to defend Japan against foreigners and of neglecting the national reconstruction and modernisation. 11 The first contact with the West occurred about 1542, when a Portuguese ship, blown off its course to China, landed in Japan. 25 After 200 years of total isolation from the outside world due to the fear of westerly and Christian invasion or superiority, Japan agreed to open the country to the outside world.Nevertheless, 200 years of isolation has re sulted in a rather great amount of regulations, etc. (one may argue that this is a undercover form of protectionism) that are there in order to adopt an e. g. occidental product to the needs and circumstances of the Japanese culture. This separateness, or isolation, has also caused the Japanese to be extremely aware of anything that comes from outside, and they thus strongly distinguish between foreign and native culture, as well as its products and innovations (Reischauer, 1995 32, Kodansha, 1994 32-37, 131-132, Wakaba, 1996 4-12). 8. 5Uniqueness The Japanese people have long believed that they are the children or descendants of gods, living in a divinely land. In the 18th century, the scholar, Motoori Norinaga, was responsible for resurrecting ancient myths about Japan and the Japanese. Before Norinagas time, Japanese scholar viewed China and its civilization as the most important in the world. Norinaga attacked this view, claiming that Japan was superior to any other country in the world. According to him, Japan was the country where the sunshine Goddess was born, making it the epicenter of all other nations.With the appearance from the early 19th century of Russian, British, and other foreign ships in the waters of Japan, there was an severe debate on how to react, since the country had had a policy of isolation from the rest of the world for two hundred years. The military government thus try to promote hate and fear of foreigners by law 12 . In 1825, Expulsion Edict was implemented, prohibiting all barbarians and occidentalers from entering Japan. If a foreign ship was seen, it was fired upon and driven off. If foreigners went ashore, they were captured and their ship destroyed. 2 Antiforeign attitudes in Japan have generally been limited to the official level. 26 The belief in superiority and uniqueness of all things Japanese have weakened but not entirely disappeared in the present-day Japan. Although this extraordinarily chauvinistic mentality was temporarily restrained after the defeat in WWII, the post-war economic miracle has reawakened the feelings once again. Nevertheless, the rigid, exclusive world view that has been present in pre-1945 Japan, no longer dominates the country.Ultra-nationalism has been guilty at least in mainstream social, political, and intellectual life. The ideology that has its place is a set of rules by which society generally has learned to operate efficiently. The set of rules are learned from parent, the authority figures, the educational system and the mass media, and contain among other things social solidarity, or collectivistic behavior and thinking, hierarchical social structure, or power distance, role playing, or tatemae, reciprocal obligations, or group harmony.Although this set of rules is far weaker than the pre-war ultra-nationalistic ideology, it is still more rigid and omnipotent than those of e. g. Western societies. In Japan, the rights of the group are thus prioritized over tho se of the individual, and there are rules for most activities, creating a dependency on others and on group, which again reinforces an ideal of rules, group harmony and collectivism. The Japanese ideal portrays men and women behaving modestly, speaking prudently, and avoiding offend others and maintaining in-group harmony. For them, the deal of individualism is un-noble, risky and illogical. The Japanese desire people to be polite, courteous and indirect with each other. The Japanese are only uncivil on rare occasions, striving to put the best face, as well as save face, on themselves and situations (Cohen, 1997146147, 184-186, 224). To express what one really thinks or feels in Japan is regarded as uncultivated and vulgar. The Japanese do not see themselves in first place as individuals, but as group-oriented members. The social group gives them approval, identity and companionship, status, and meaning as such with their lives.All the group members are interdependent. Matsumoto u sed a food model in order to describe human relations in Japan, calling it natto (fermented soybeans). Fermented soybeans sit in sticky glue of starch, and it is impossible to extract one without pulling out the others they are all connected by the same glue. According to Matsumoto, the beans represent the closeness and interdependence present in the Japanese culture (March, 1996 15-34, Kodansha, 1994 32-37, 131-132, Wakaba, 1996 4-12). 27 8. 6 Western InfluenceThe Japanese culture has been greatly influenced by Western cultures throughout the years, such as the British, the Prussian (e. g. in 1889, Japan created Western-style musical composition greatly influenced by Prussia), the Portuguese, and the American. The Western influence entered the shores of Japan through trade, Christianity (missionaries) and war (WWII and the American occupation), as well as through cultural and business exchanges (e. g. through travels and international business). During the mid-16th Century, the E uropeans made their first appearance on the shores of Japan.The first Portuguese to be shipwrecked in 1543 found an appreciative Japanese response for their skills in making firearms. The Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, arrived in 1549, and was followed by more missionaries who born-again local lords to Christianity (several hundred thousand converts particularly in Nagasaki) keen to kale from foreign trade and assistance with military supplies. Initially, the Japanese emperor cut the advantages of trading with Europeans and tolerated the arrival of Christianity as a counterbalance to Buddhism.However, this tolerance gradually turned into suspicion of a religion, which he saw as a threat to his rule. This suspicion resulted in rulings against Christianity and the crucifixion of 26 foreign priests and Japanese believers in 1597. The prohibition and the prosecution of Christianity continued under the Tokugawa government until it reached its peak in 1637 with the brutal suppres sion by the authorities of the Christianled Shimabara Rebellion. This put an end to the Christian Century although the religion continued to be practiced in secret until it was officially allowed at the end of the 19th Century.Additionally, in order to glide by Christianitys presence in Japan, it was required for every family to register a Buddhistic temple, becoming a familiar scene in every community. Because of this religious policy, all Japanese today are Buddhist by default. The Western influence continued during the Meiji period (1868-1912) when the Japanese economy underwent a fall course in westernization and industrialization. An influx of Western experts was encouraged and Japanese students were sent abroad to acquire expertise in modern technologies.During the Meiji period, the process of modernization and industrialization took place in Japan, inspired by Western philosophers. An almost obsessive admiration and adaptation of Western ideas and culture had taken place during this period. 28 By the 1890s, the Japanese government leaders were concerned by the spread of liberal Western ideas and encouraged nationalism and traditional Japanese values. Japan was becoming more confident and an equal player to the Western powers, resulting in the abolition of foreign treaty rights and, in the years to come, in nationalism.This continued till Japans defeat in WWII, and the American occupation. The main aim of the occupation was to reform the Japanese government through demilitarization, the trial of war criminals and the removal of militarist and ultranationalists from the government. Additionally, a new typography was introduced, which dismantled the political power of the emperor, forcing him to publicly reject any claim to divine origins. Once again, Japan was influenced, if not ruled, by Western powers. Finally, in the late 19th century, Western Europe became its model for modernization.